THE TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR, 1877-1878.

BY

R. A. HAMMOND

 

CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

CHAPTER II. ORIGIN OF THE REBELLION AND WAR WITH RUSSIA.

CHAPTER III. RELATIVE CONDITION AND RESOURCES OF RUSSIA AND TURKEY.

CHAPTER IV. FALL OF PLEVNA AND CLOSE OF THE WAR.

CHAPTER  V. THE BERLIN  TREATY.

 

CHAPTER I.

ORIGIN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The vanity of nations, like that of families, inclines them to lay claim to a high antiquity. From this weakness of the human mind the Turkish people and their historians cannot claim to be entirely free. They endeavor to trace their nationality back to chiefs and conquerors reputed to have existed a thousand years before the birth of Christ, and to warlike tribes who occupied the central country of Asia and battled with and stemmed the western march of the hordes of China. Of this period of their existence, however, if existence they then had as a distinct people, there exists no authentic record. It is long anterior to the time when reliable history commences of that portion of the globe. There is, to be sure, no reasonable doubt that, at that stage of the world’s existence, the plateaus of Central Asia were occupied by savage and warlike tribes, nomadic in habits, quarrelsome in disposition, and predatory in their manner of life. But that these tribes were settled and populous enough, or sufficiently homogeneous to constitute a nation from which to trace a genealogy is exceedingly improbable. The more reasonable supposition is that, at that early date, the region referred to was but very scantily peopled, the tribes at constant enmity with each other and migrating from place to place at the mercy of the varying fortunes of war; and that anything approaching to settlement or civiliza­tion was the result of a later experience and commenced at a much later date in the world’s chronology.

The earliest authentic history of the Turks does not date back further than the seventh century of the Christian era. At about this period, having become somewhat numerous, they began to direct their course westward, and gradually spread over the plains of Turkestan and the territory between the Black and Caspian Seas, and came into contact with the then powerful Arabs or Saracens with whom they soon entered into alliance and friendly relations. Being found superior in all the soldierly qualities to the Arabs, the armies of the Saracen caliphs came gradually to be composed almost entirely of them. At this date also they were largely employed by the emperor Heraclius to recruit his armies, and it was by their instrumentality that he undertook and successfully carried out the conquest of Persia, then at the very height of its power, and whose hitherto victorious arms had extended the Persian boundaries to their widest extent (A.D. 628). By this disaster the defeated nation lost all its conquests and its power, and became a prey to the wrangling of petty chiefs and to the repeated conquests of the Turk and the Arab, a condition from which it has never recovered.

While the superior military qualities of the Turks enabled them gradually to wrest the political power from the Arabs, the latter were able, by their greater devotion to religion, to exercise a no less potent influence (though of a different nature) over the Turks. The Saracens at this date had thoroughly and devotedly espoused the Mahometan religion, which had been divulged by their prophet and leader, Mahomet or Mohammed. This celebrated chieftain was born at Mecca, in Arabia, in the year A.D. 569. He belonged to an Arabian tribe called Koraish, and his family possessed the hereditary right to the custody of the Kaaba, or one of the places of worship, under their previous idolatrous system, at Mecca. They had, however, fallen into reduced circumstances; and Mahomet was trained for a life of traffic and merchandise. Marrying a rich widow, whose confidence and affections he had won by the faithful discharge of his duties as her factor, he greatly improved his condition. His education, however, was scanty, which proved a considerable impediment to his ambition. But he had great natural capacities of mind, great genius, wonderful eloquence, unquestioned bravery, and an indomitable will. He was personally present at nine battles and sieges, and in twelve years undertook with his army upwards of fifty successful enterprises. His claims as a prophet and ruler were at first rejected at Mecca, and he himself was forced to fly to Medina for safety; and it is from this flight, called the Hegira, that all Mahometans date their annals. He afterwards captured Mecca and the greater part of the strongholds of Arabia, and in the prime of his life was able to boast that all Arabia had submitted to his government and espoused his religion. He raised the power of his nation to a high pitch, and was universally recognized by his countrymen as a prophet and a prince. He died in the sixty-third year of his age, retaining his mental and bodily vigor to the last (A.D. 632). Full of the fire and zeal of a new religion, the Arabians, under the successors of Mahomet, undertook campaigns against all the neighboring nations, in which they were largely assisted by the Turks. They conquered Persia and Greece. Antioch, Damascus, and Syria succumbed to their prowess. They penetrated into Palestine and captured Jerusalem. They routed the Medes and Africans, and also annexed Egypt, Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Sicily, Malta, and other islands. Such was the prowess of the Arabian zealots and their Turkish allies. We pause here to give some account of the religion of Mahomet, as embodied in the Koran.

The state of the world at that time was highly favorable to the introduction of a new religion : it had been the will of Heaven to permit the purity and simplicity of the doctrines of Christ to be contaminated and perverted by the artful wiles of priest-craft, which caused the grossest impositions to be practiced upon the ignorant laity; pomp, splendor, an unintelligible worship, were substituted for the devotion of the heart, whilst the prayers offered up to imaginary and fictitious saints had effaced all just notions of the attributes of the Deity. Mahomet had made two journeys into Syria, where he had informed himself of the principles of Judaism,, and the jargon which bore the name of Christianity: it is probable, indeed, that his mind was naturally prone to religious enthusiasm, and that he was a devotee before he became an impostor. His first design seems to have extended no farther than to bring the wild, intractable, and ardent Arabs to acknowledge one God and one king; and it is probable that for a considerable time his ambition extended no farther than to become the spiritual and temporal sovereign of Arabia. He began his eventful project by accusing both Jews and Christians of corrupting the revelations which had been made to them from heaven, and maintained that both Moses and Jesus Christ had prophetically foretold the coming of a prophet from God, which was accomplished in himself, the last and greatest of the prophets; thus initiated he proceeded to deliver detached sentences, as he pretended to receive them from the Almighty, by the hand of the angel Gabriel. These pretensions to a divine mission drew on him a requisition from the inhabitants of Mecca that he would convince them by working a miracle ; but he replied, “God refuses those signs and wonders that would depreciate the merit of faith, and aggravate the guilt of infidelity.” The unity of God was the grand and leading article in the creed he taught, to which was closely joined his own divine mission ; Allah il allah, Muhamed resoul Allah, is their preface to every act of devotion, and the sentence continually in their mouths: which is, I there is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.”

The Arabian tribes, who occupied the country from Mecca to the Euphrates, were at that time known by the name of Saracens; their religion was chiefly gross idolatry, Sabianism having spread almost over the whole nation, though there were likewise great numbers of Christians, Jews and Magians interspersed in those parts. The essence of their worship principally consisted in adoring the planets and fixed stars: angels and images they honored as inferior deities, whose intercessions with the almighty in their favor they implored  they believed in one God; in the future punishment of the wicked for a long series of years, though not for ever; and constantly prayed three times a day; namely, at sunrise, at its declination, and at sunset; they fasted three times a year, during thirty days, nine days and seven days; they offered many sacrifices, but ate no part of them, the whole being burnt; they likewise turned their faces, when praying, to a particular part of the horizon; they performed pilgrimages to the city of Harran in Mesopotamia, and had a great respect for the temple of Mecca and the pyramids of Egypt, imagining the latter to be the sepulchres of Seth, also of Enos and Sabi, his two sons, whom they considered as the founders of their religion. Besides the book of Psalms, they had other books, which they esteemed equally sacred, particularly one, in the Chaldee tongue, which they called “ the book of Seth.” They have been called “Christians of St. John the Baptist,” whose disciples also they pretend to be, using a kind of baptism, which is the greatest mark they bear of Christianity : circumcision was practised by the Arabs, although Sale is silent on that practice, when describing the religion of the Sabians; they likewise abstained from swine’s flesh. So that in this sect we may trace the essential articles of the creed of Mussulmans.

Mahomet was in the fortieth year of his age when he assumed the character of a prophet. He had been .accustomed for several years, during the month of Ramadan, to withdraw from the world, and to secrete himself in a cave three miles distant from Mecca. “Conversation,” says Mr. Gibbon, “enriches the understanding, but solitude is the school of genius.” During the first three years he made only fourteen proselytes, among which were his wife Khadijah; his servant, or rather slave, Zeid Ali, who afterwards married the prophet’s favorite daughter, Fatima, and was surnamed “the lion of God”, Abubeker, a man distinguished for his merit and his wealth; the rest consisted of respectable citizens of Mecca. The Koreishites, although the tribe to which he belonged, were the most violent opposers of the new religion. In the tenth year of his prophetic office, his wife died; and the next year his enemies formed a design to cut him off. Being seasonably apprised, he fled by night to Medina, on the 16th of July, 622, from which event the Hegira commenced; he was accompanied only by two or three followers, but he made a public entry into that city, and soon gained many proselytes, on which he assumed the regal and sacerdotal characters. As he increased in power, that moderation and humility, which had before distinguished his conduct, were gradually erased, and he became fierce and sanguinary; he began to avow a design of propagating his religion by the sword, to destroy the monuments of idolatry, and, without regarding the sanctity of days or months, to pursue the unbelieving nations of the earth. The Koran inculcates, in the most absolute sense, the tenets of faith and predestination. The first companions of Mahomet advanced to battle with a fearless confidence, their leader having fully possessed their minds with the assurance that paradise awaited those who died fighting for the cause of their prophet, the gratifications of which were held out to be such as best suited the amorous complexions of the Arabians : black­eyed Houries, resplendent in beauty, blooming youth, and virgin purity; every moment of pleasure was there to be prolonged to a thousand years, and the powers of the man were to be increased a hundredfold to render him capable of such felicity ; to those who survived, rich spoils and the possession of their female captives were to crown their conquests.

Of the chapters of the Koran, which are one hundred and fourteen in number, ninety-four were received at Mecca and twenty at Medina. The order in which they stand does not point out the time when they were written, for the seventy-fourth chapter is supposed to have been the first revealed, and the sixty-eighth to have immediately followed it.

The most marked feature of this religion is its strict assertion of the Unity of God. A general resurrection of the dead is another article of belief reiterated in the Koran. The pilgrimage to Mecca, praying toward that place, and the ablutions which are enjoined on the most ordinary acts and occasions, together with the adoption of that religious sophism predestination, in its most extravagant extent, seem to comprehend the superstitious parts of this religion; but it has other characteristics which betray its spurious origin, and prove its destructive tendency.

Besides the Koran, which is the written law to the Mahometans, alike as to the belief and practice of religion and the administration of public justice, there is the Sunnah, or oral law, which was selected, two hundred years after the death of Mahomet, from a vast number of precepts and injunctions which had been handed down from age to age, as bearing the stamp of his authority. In this work the rite of circumcision is enjoined, concerning which the Koran was silent; nor was it necessary to be there commanded, as the Arabians adhered to it before the establishment of Mahometanism.

Their children are not circumcised, like those of the Jews, at eight days old, but at eleven or twelve, and sometimes at fourteen and fifteen years of age, when they are able to make a profession of their faith. When any renegade Christian is circumcised, two basins are usually carried after him, to gather the alms which the spectators freely give. Those who are uncircumcised, whether Turkish children or Christians, are not allowed to be present at their public prayers; and if they are taken in their mosques they are liable to be impaled or burnt. .

The fast of Ramedan and the feasts of the Great and the Little Bairam are strictly observed by the Turks as by other Mahometans; but a full account of these will be given when describing the habits and customs of the people.

They regularly pray three times a day, and are obliged to wash before their prayers, as well as before they presume to touch the Koran. As they make great use of their fingers in eating, they are required to wash  after every meal, and the more cleanly among them do it before meals. After every kind of defilement, in fact, ablution is enjoined.

By the Mahometan law a man may divorce his wife twice, and if he afterwards repents, he may lawfully take her again ; but Mahomet, to prevent his followers from divorcing their wives upon every slight occasion, or merely from an inconstant humor, ordained that if any man divorces his wife a third time, it is not lawful for him to take her again until she has been married and bedded by another, and divorced from that husband. The Koran allows no man to have more than four wives and concubines, but the prophet and his successors are laid under no restriction.

Church government, by the institutions of Mahomet, appears to have centred in the mufti, and the order of moulahs, from which the mufti must be chosen. The moulahs have been looked upon as ecclesiastics, and the mufti as their head; but the Turks consider the first rather as expounders of the law, and the latter as the great law officer. Those who really act as divines are the imaums, or parish priests, who officiate in, and are set aside for, the service of the mosques. No church revenues are appropriated to the particular use of the moulahs ; the imaums are the ecclesiastics in immediate pay. Their scheiks are the chiefs of their dervises or monks, and form religious communities, or orders, established on solemn vows; they consecrate themselves merely to religious office, domestic devotion, and public prayers and preaching ; there are four of these orders, the Bektoshi, Mevelevi, Kadri, and Seyah, who are very numerous throughout the empire.

The monks of the first of those orders are allowed to marry, but are obliged to travel through the empire. The Mevelevi, in their acts of devotion, turn round with velocity for two or three hours incessantly. The Kadri express their devotion by lacerating their bodies ; they walk the streets almost naked, with distracted and wild looks. The Seyahs, like the Indian fakirs, are little better than mere vagabonds.

The Turks appropriate to themselves the name of Moslemim, which has been corrupted into Mussulman, signifying persons professing the doctrine of Mahomet. They also term themselves Sunnites, or observers of theoral traditions of Mahomet and his three successors ; and likewise call themselves true believers, in opposition to the Persians and others, the adherents of Ali, whom they call a wicked and abominable sect. Their rule of faith and practice is the Koran. Some externals of their religion, besides the prescribed ablutions, are prayers, which are to be said five times every twenty-four hours, with the face turned towards Mecca ; and alms, which are both enjoined and voluntary : the former consists of paying two and a half per cent, to charitable uses out of their whole incomes. Their feasts will hereafter be spoken of. Every Mahometan must, at least once in his lifetime, go in pilgrimage, either personally or by proxy, to the Kaaba, or house of God at Mecca.

This religion was gradually espoused by the Turks and has been adhered to by them through all their vicissitudes with intolerant pertinacity. There can be no doubt also that the intimate contact with their Arabian allies exercised in some degree an enlightening and civilizing influence upon the Turks who now became less nomadic in their habits and less quarrelsome amongst themselves. They settled in Persia and became powerful under the caliphs of Bagdad, gradually acquiring the temporal supremacy. Salur, one of the first converted chiefs, called his tribe Turk-imams, or Turks of the faith, to denote their devotion to Islamism. They soon took possession of Khorasan, one of the provinces of Persia, and made Nishapore its capital, a place still in existence, though unimportant. Vigorous and able rulers succeeded, and by gradual reinforcement of other tribes from Tartary, were enabled to make conquests of neighboring territories. Genghis- Khan, an able chieftain, about the beginning of the 13th century, made himself master of nearly all Persia and the country around the Caspian Sea; Shah Soliman, Prince of Nera, pushed westward as far as Syria and made conquests in Asia Minor. Othman, his grand­son, marched still further west and wrested territory from Greece ; and in the year A.D. 1300, he first assumed the title of Emperor of the Othmans, or as it is corrupted, Ottomans ; and is recognized as the first of their emperors.

It is a tradition universally believed by the Turks that Othman had a dream of future greatness under the guise of a tree which seemed to spring from his own person and spread until it covered the three continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. The crescent seemed to be everywhere in the ascendant, and a glittering sabre pointed to Constantinople. His ambition was boundless and the opportunity was favorable. The Greek Empire was tottering to its fall to the westward, while from the east he could draw reinforcements from count­less hordes. He pushed forward in Asia Minor and captured Prusa, now Bursa, which he made his capital, routing the Kings of Bithynia. In this city, one of the early strongholds of Christianity, he introduced Mahometanism. His reign lasted for 26 years and gave an immense impetus to Turkish power and progress ; for while only a few of the tribes acknowledged his sway, yet his valor and conquests tended greatly to unite the scattered bands into one nation and to lay the foundations of the Turkish Empire.

He was succeeded at his death by his son, Orchan, in 1326. This ruler has the honor of being the first to set foot upon European soil. He crossed the Hellespont and established himself in Gallipolis, an important post and key of the Hellespont, and also in Tyrilos in 1354. He divided the domain into provinces, and appointed a Governor for each under the title of Pasha, which literally means foot of the Shah. The distinctive official symbol of the Pashas was a horse’s tail; the number of tails denoting their relative importance. The army also, in his reign, was reorganized and formed into companies and corps with regular officers; a task of no mean dimensions when the equality of their previous pastoral life and their intractable disposition is considered. The army was further recruited by captives taken in war and' by the children of Christian subjects. A corps of janissaries or body-guard troops was established, into which the children of the soldiers themselves were admitted, and thus it became a sort of military caste ; and this body of troops is the first example in modern history of a regular standing army. Despotic rule now took the place of the former patriarchal form, but the well trained and disciplined forces of the Turks now become almost irresistible in their march westward. Against them were pitted the forces of Europe, composed for the most part of the worst and weakest material for an army, the serfs and the nobles.

Orchan died in 1359 and was succeeded by Murad I, who continued the conquests of his father and captured Adrianople and Philippopolis, took possession of Servia and invaded Macedonia and Albania. Adrianople, founded by the Roman Emperor Hadrian, became their first European capital and remained such for a century, and even afterwards divided the honor with Constantinople. It now contains some of the largest of their mosques. Murad continued to push westward and northward in Europe, which caused such alarm to the Hungarians, the Servians, the Bosnians and Wallachians, that they banded to resist his onward march; but their forces were completely routed in a pitched battle with the Turks at the Balkan Mountains, and Servia was added to the dominions of the con­querors.

Murad I was stabbed by one of the captive chiefs and was succeeded by his son, Bayazid I, in 1389, who first took the title of Sultan. This ruler saw the importance of the control of the Hellespont and strongly fortified Adrianople and formed a large fleet of galleys. He thus cut off all supplies for Constantinople. His reign was a brief one of thirteen years, but was a constant march of triumphs. He defeated Sigismund of Hungary, and his German and French allies, on the Danube, with terrible slaughter. Ten thousand prisoners were put to death. The Turks had pushed out to the borders of Germany. But the incursion of a powerful horde of Mongols into Asia Minor called Amarauth in that direction and he suffered a great defeat at the hands of Timour or Tamerlane, their leader, and lost his life.

Mehmed I succeeded to the throne in 1413, but his reign accomplished nothing of special note. Murad II followed in 1421 and captured Saloniki from the Venetians and converted the churches into mosques. He renewed the war against the Hungarians and defeated Huniades, the self-styled champion of Christianity. The Greek rulers became alarmed for Constantinople. A strong alliance was formed between the Greek and Roman Churches and Hungary against the Turk. They united their armies to resist the common enemy, but were signally defeated at Varna in 1444. Again the Hungarians rallied in 1448 and again they were routed at Kassova by the furious enemy. From this time the Christian power succumbed to the South of the Danube and the Mohammedans were supreme.

Murad II died in 1451, and was succeeded by Mehmet II. This youth inherited the ambition of his father, and his craftiness also. He caused his younger brothers to be murdered to make himself supreme. He then directed his attention to the overthrow of the Grecian Empire, and was successful, and finally captured Constantinople, May 29th, 1453, with one hundred thousand troops; employing both ancient and modern artillery in the siege, which lasted some fifty days. The captive Greeks were made slaves, and the property was seized by the victors. But later a proclamation of amnesty to the Greeks was made, and they continued to reside in the city with the captors; and, indeed, filled high offices in the service of the Sultan. They have ever since been, next to the Turks, the most numerous portion of the population. Mahomet, with large armies, added Epirus and Albania to the Turkish dominions. He subdued the Crimea and captured Negropont, and also Trebizond, the last vestige of the Greek Empire; and Servia became a province. In 1456 he laid siege to Belgrade, but with only partial success; and the same may be said of his siege of Rhodes, which he did not, however, conduct in person. He crossed the Adriatic and captured Otranto, throwing all Italy into dismay. The Pope in vain called upon the nations to ally themselves against the victorious Turks. His victories were ended by his death, in 1481. The form of government of the Turkish Empire was elaborated in his reign viziers, or ministers of state, were appointed, four in number, of whom the chief was called the grand vizier; kadiaskers, or generals of the army, became cabinet ministers; as also defterdars, or finance ministers, and nishandshis, or secretaries of state. These constituted, with the Sultan, the Court. He also instituted the body of the Ulema, or learned, including ministers of law and religion, professors and jurists ; whose duty it was to teach the law out of the Koran, which governed both religion and jurisprudence; and these officers were paid by the state. The chief of these is the Mufti, who represents the Sultan in a spiritual capacity. But none of them can effect any change in the organic law, which is unalterably determined by the Koran. This Tody, as is the case too often with religious bodies having, political power, has generally proved obstructive, and retarded and opposed all progress or reform.

Bayezid II succeeded to the throne in 1481. He was less warlike than his father, and merely maintained the territories which his predecessors had annexed. He was much troubled by internal dissensions and by his brother’s rebellion. Constantinople was, in this reign, extensively damaged by earthquakes, which laid in ruins a considerable portion of the city. Russia, in J492, sent her first ambassador to the Ottoman Court. In 1512, Selim I, by the aid of the Janissaries, compelled his father to abdicate, and it is said murdered him, and succeeded to the sway of empire. He was of a more warlike nature than his father, and again exciting the martial spirit of his people, he drove the Persians back to the Euphrates and Tigris. He defeated the Mamelukes, and conquered, in 1517, Egypt, Syria and Palestine, and annexed these countries to his domain. The Persians, though equally venerating the Koran, were of a different sect and often bitterly hostile to the Turkish Mahometans. The Persian campaign was, therefore, partly for territory and partly fanatical. The Persians were thoroughly routed, the more readily as they were unacquainted with artillery. The slaughter of enemies and captives in these wars was terrible. Selim was now the supreme head of Islam, or the church, and commander of the faithful. He enlarged the navy, and built store arsenals for its use. Several hundred thou­sand Jews, expelled from Spain fled to Turkey in this reign, and received its protection.

At Bayezid ’s death, in 1520, Soliman I, the lawgiver, succeeded him, and in his long reign of forty-six years, the empire reached the height of its glory and power and the greatest expansion of its territory. Turkish superstition marked this ruler as a powerful and successful monarch, and the expectation seemed to be fulfilled. He selected Belgrade and Rhodes, the only two points which had succeeded in foiling Turkish ambition, as the object of his attack. The former, though one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, succumbed, and the garrison was slaughtered. Rhodes, the stronghold of the western nations in the Mediterranean and the key to the Dardanelles, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, soon after surrendered. It added greatly to Turkish power and prestige. The mastery of the Bosphorous placed all commerce on the Black Sea in the hands of the Turks. It gave them, also, the control of the traffic with China and the Indies, which then came to the Caspian and Black Seas. Soliman restricted all commerce on these seas to Turkish subjects; but a new route had by this time been found by way of Cape Horn. He appointed Barbarossa, a pirate, high admiral; and under his command the navy ravaged the shores of Italy, Spain, and other countries, and captured Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, but failed at Malta.

In 1525 the first French Ambassador was received at the Ottoman Court. He was despatched to secure the assistance of Turkey against Austria. An alliance was formed and Soliman marched his forces across the Danube. His march was one continued triumph. Hungary was completely defeated and impoverished, and Austria became the object of attack. The huge Turkish army, burning and destroying all before it, reached Vienna on the 27th September, 1529. They had 400 pieces of artillery with them. They invested the city and made many breaches in the walls. But lack of pro­visions compelled them to fall back. The result of this campaign was the annexation of the greater part of Hungary to the Turkish dominions. A treaty of peace was concluded with Austria. Another Persian campaign was planned and successfully carried out, all the leading places falling into the hands of the invaders. Treaties of commerce were for the first time entered into with foreign nations by the Sultan Soliman. In 1566 he once more led a force, larger than ever before, across the Danube, and captured Szigeth, a fortified city. But sudden death put an end to the campaigns and ambitious projects of one of the ablest of Turkish rulers. Soliman, in the midst of all his campaigns,  found time to beautify his capital, and many extensive buildings were erected in his reign. Education also was fostered, and his age is accounted one of the most brilliant in Turkish literature. He fortified the Dardanelles, rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and erected several beautiful mosques.

Selim II succeeded him in 1566. A treaty of peace was now made with Austria, which left the greater part of Hungary in Turkish possession, and by which Austria paid tribute for the remainder. In 1570 conquests were made in Arabia, and Cyprus was wrested from the Venetians. A large Turkish fleet was destroyed by the combined Spanish, and Venetian navies, in 1572, at Le­panto. But the loss was rapidly repaired, and two years later Tunis was captured from Spain.

The Turkish Empire was how at the very height of its glory and power; a terror to all the nations of Europe and the undisputed master of the east. A succession of valiant and able Sultans had built up a nation second to none of that age, all powerful by land,, and masters of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas. Their dominions included all Asia Minor, Armenia, Georgia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cyprus, Daghistan, Kurdistan, and most of Arabia, in Asia; in Africa, Egypt, Tunis, Algiers and Tripoli ; and in Europe, Turkey, as at present bounded, Greece, and most of Hungary; also the Crimea, Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Ragusa, as dependencies. They occupied a favorable location, with unsurpassed climate, and a capital com­manding access to three continents and controlling three seas.

But from this time their power commenced to wane. Feeble rulers succeeded ; domestic dissensions weakened their power for foreign aggression; selfish, rapacious, and conspiring subordinates curtailed the hitherto supreme power of the Sultans ; and an insubordinate army thwarted their plans and often held them in actual subjection. The people sank into effeminacy, ignorance and slavery; and while other portions of Europe were making rapid strides in the arts of peace and war, the Ottoman government remained stationary and inactive. Pride and conceit characterized all their dealings with foreign nations. Revolts of janissaries and pachas be­came numerous and dangerous. Murders and assassi­nations were frequent, and this means was habitually resorted to for removing a hated sultan or governor.

Murad III, a weak ruler, succeeded to the throne in 1574. During twenty-one years of his sway the only event of note was a purposeless war with Persia. From 1595 to 1603, Mahomet III ruled without the occurrence of any remarkable event. The reign of Achmet I, from 1603 to 1617 was marked with reverses. The Persians, always anxious to recuperate their fallen fortunes, with a reorganized army and the assistance of artillery, defeated the Turkish army in 1605, and recovered many of their provinces. The Turks were also unsuccessful in Hungary; Austria ceased to pay tribute, and the ruler of that country was for the first time recognized as an equal by the Turkish sultan.

Mustapha I reigned but one year, and was followed, in 1618, by Othman II, who, however, was soon deposed and assassinated by the janissaries. In 1622 Murad IV succeeded in his minority. Disasters followed thick and fast. Bagdad was taken by the Persians ; the Black sea towns were pillaged by Cossacks, and the Crimea revolted. The Turks, aware that an effort must be made to stay these disasters, marched into Persia, and after great atrocities recovered Bagdad, and put the garrison to the sword. Murad died in 1640, and was succeeded by Ibrahim I, who was assassination in 1648, and followed by Mahomet IV, a child, under his grand­mother’s guardianship. Great confusion followed. Bands of outlaws plundered the villages, and pirates scoured the seas. Grand viziers succeeded each other and were in turn deposed in rapid succession, until Ahmed Kiuprili, more vigorous than the rest, restored partial tranquility. Trouble breaking out in Candia, he subdued the island, and also the city, after a siege of nearly three years, in 1669. A war with Poland followed, in which the Turks were defeated by the famous John Sobieski.

Kiuprili was an able statesman and patron of literature, and held the grand viziership for seventeen years. Under him the office of dragoman was instituted for the purpose of translating foreign state papers; the Turks being forbidden by Mahometan law from learning any infidel language, the office was generally filled by Greeks, and subsequently came to be held in high estimation as a cabinet office.

In the year 1682 war again broke out with Austria and the second siege of Vienna occurred in July 1683. The besieging army was immense, while the garrison numbered only 20,000 men, and suffered from the scanty supply of provisions. Fierce attacks were made by the Turks in their determination to carry the place by storm at any loss of life, and the walls were breached and blown up by mines in many places. Still the garrison held out awaiting the arrival of promised reinforce­ments. The attacks were incessant and the loss of life on both sides was great. The Turks were famous for conducting sieges, and used artillery, hot shot, and all the improved appliances. Their cavalry, meanwhile, scoured the surrounding country and scattered desolation in their train. So fierce was the attack that Turkish standards were actually planted on the ramparts and the garrison was about to surrender. At this moment the Polish army, allied to the Austrians, arrived upon the field under the command of Sobieski, and im­mediately made a furious assault. The Turks were routed and fled, abandoning artillery, baggage and wounded. This battle revealed the weakness of the Turks when opposed by brave and disciplined troops. It relieved western Europe of a load of anxiety, and was the last occasion on which the Turks appeared for­midable in Central Europe. They suffered several defeats while retreating, and as a result of this disas­trous campaign, lost most of Hungary and the Morea.

The Sultan, Mehmed IV, was deposed in 1687, and succeeded in turn by Soliman II. who only reigned the brief term of four years; Achmet II, four years; and Mustapha II, eight years. These reigns were remarkable for nothing but loss of territory and gradual decline of power and importance. Russia was now rising into prominence as a military nation under Peter I, who much improved the discipline of his forces, and established a flotilla upon the rivers and seas. In 1695 he declared war with Turkey, and captured Azoff, a strong position at the mouth of the Don. In a war with Austria, the Turks were defeated by Eugene, at Zenta, and lost Transylvania and more of Hungary, and were compelled to sue for peace.

Achmet III ascended the throne in 1703, and obtained partial successes over the Russians, who had advanced too far from their base and supplies. But in a war with the German forces the Turks were again worsted and lost the remainder of Hungary, which was annexed to Austria. Further reverses in a campaign against Persia led to the deposition of Achmet, who was held as a state prisoner by the janissaries. This reign is remarkable for the fact that the printing press, which had long been in use in Western Europe, but of which the introduction into Turkey had been bitterly opposed, was permitted to be used in Constantinople upon all books except the Koran and religious works ; yet so indolent and apathetic were the people that for fifty years only about forty separate works were issued. The gradual decline of Turkey was largely owing to the feebleness and growing effeminacy of her rulers, and to domestic discord and dissensions. The conduct of the armies was now entrusted to court favorites, the Sultans remaining quietly at home, intent upon nothing but pleasure and self-gratification. A degenerate stock had succeeded the early warlike rulers, who always commanded in person and were ever found in the thickest of the fight.

Under these weak Sultans the governors of provinces became more and more independent, and less devoted to the interests of the empire. They used their positions for self-enrichment, and public offices were openly sold to the highest bidders. The administration of domestic affairs became corrupt and extortionary, and the dealings with foreign powers grew timid and vacillating. General ignorance, slavishness, and bigotry characterized the masses of the people.

Mahmoud I reigned from 1730 to 1754, and during this time desultory conflicts took place with Russia and Austria without important results to any party, though the Russians won several victories. From 1754 to 1757 Othman III held a brief term of power. In 1757 Mustapha III succeeded him. The Turks allied themselves with Poland in her war against Russia in 1768, and in the engagements which followed the successes of Russia, under Romanzow, were complete and decisive. They conquered all the country between the Dnieper and the Danube. They also took possession of the Crimea, by which name was then known, not merely the Peninsula proper, but an indefinite extent of country behind it, and which had long been a dependency of Turkey and a faithful ally in war. A Russian fleet sailed from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, and in a fierce engagement nearly annihilated the Turkish fleet of over thirty vessels, and remained master of the waters adjacent to Turkey. The situation of the latter country had now become desperate. Numerous Pachas in Asia declared their independence of the Porte ; and to add to the general discomfiture, an extensive plague raged throughout the empire.

Mustapha III died in 1774 and was succeeded by Abdul Hamet I, his brother. The war with Russia still continued, and the Turkish army being badly defeated by the Russians, under Kamenski, the Porte was forced to agree to an ignominious treaty of peace, by which they surrendered to Russia all the territory north of the river Borg, which now became the Turkish boundary. The fortresses in the Crimea were also given up, and to Russia was conceded the right to navigate the Dardanelles and all the adjacent seas. The Porte pledged itself to protect its Christian population and to Russia was given considerable control in matters relating to the Greek Church. The independence of the Crimea was recognized for the first time, which dissolved a connection of three hundred years and greatly weakened the Turkish power. Nine years later the whole Crimea was annexed to Russia.

In 1787 Turkey again declared war against Russia, and a conflict, chiefly maritime, followed, in which victory uniformly favored the Russians. In 1789 Abdul Hamid died, and left the throne to Selim III., with a ruinous war as a legacy. The Russians, under Suwarrow, crossed the Danube, captured Ismail, and occupied the surrounding country. Driven by repeated disasters, the Turks again sued for peace, and ceded to the Russians all the territory as far as the Dniester River, including, many fortified towns and citadels. Urged by defeats and internal disorganization, the Sultan feebly attempted some measures of reform in the army, the administration, and the condition of the people. These long- delayed improvements were much needed, but were fought at every step by this bigoted and indolent people. He attempted to remodel the army, so as to conform it to the armies of other European countries. He attempted also to improve the condition of the people, and of their cities and towns. But Selim was too weak-minded for the troublous times which were about to follow. Napoleon had invaded Egypt, and was carrying all before him ; and, instigated by Russia, Great Britain, and other nations, Turkey declared war against France, on the 1st of September, 1798, and joined the allies. The singular spectacle was now wit­nessed of the joint action of the fleets of Russia and Turkey, which had so lately been pitted against each other in mortal strife. This alliance, however, was too unnatural to last; and when peace was made with France in 1801, two conflicting parties appeared in Turkey, the one favorable to France, and the other to Russia. Napoleon compelled Turkey to be friendly by threats of invasion; and when Russia became aggressive and occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, the old hostility broke out anew, and war was declared with that power in September, 1806. The weakness of the Ottoman Empire was now apparent. Russia made rapid advances and the English fleet forced the passage of the Dardanelles. The janissaries, rendered furious by the army reforms, which lessened their power and importance,, rose in open rebellion, and after considerable civil strife and the capture of many strongholds, dethroned and afterwards assassinated Selim. This act was sanctioned by the Mufti, or high religious dignitary, who declared that by his attempted reforms, contrary to the teachings of the Koran, that ruler had forfeited all right to reign. The disasters which had followed the army rendered the populace impatient and eager for a change. Insurrection had broken out in Arabia also, where the Wahebites, so called from Waheb, their leader, though Mahometans, differed essentially in doctrine from the Turks, and had declared their independence. They captured nearly all the fortified places, and finally Mecca also surrendered in 1803, after a long seige. In the following year Medina also fell into the hands of the revolutionists, and Arabia was for a time lost to the Turkish crown.

In this dark hour of his country’s history, Mustapha IV came to the throne in 1807. Nominated by the janissaries, he was completely their tool, and immediately repealed all the reforms of his predecessor. The new army was disbanded and its leaders slain. But the misfortunes continued. The Turkish fleet was entirely destroyed by the Russians at Lemnos, and after this disaster the Pasha Bairaktar, a bold and resolute man, though illiterate, determined to seize the capital and effect a thorough reform in the military system of the empire. He therefore attacked and defeated the troops of the capital with his Albanian forces, and captured the city. The slaughter in Constantinople during the civil struggle was fearful to contemplate. Each man’s hand was raised against his neighbor. Mustapha, to prevent his own deposition, caused the former Sultan, Selim, to be murdered, and endeavored to assassinate also his brother Mahmoud, that he might be the sole surviving descendant of Othman. This purpose, how­ever, was foiled by a slave, who secreted the doomed man in the palace. Mustapha was then deposed in 1808, after only one year’s reign, and Mahmoud II was placed upon the throne. Bairaktar, now grand vizier, endeavored to restore the new army system and organi­zation, but the janissaries, the bitterest foes of progress, and opposed to any change which lessened their privi­leges and importance, rebelled, and the vizier paid the penalty of his temerity with his life. Mahmoud, now left alone, made peace with England in 1809, but continued with vigor the war with Russia, which power had advanced its army to the passes of the Balkan, and now again put forward the claim to be the protector of all the subjects of the Porte professing the Greek religion. This claim being resisted by Turkey, the Czar proceeded to occupy the Danubian principalities. The outlook was now extremely dark for the $Turks. An alliance was formed between France and Russia, by which, amongst other things, the spoliation of Turkey was agreed upon. But this agreement was of short duration, as Napoleon could brook no hampering alliances. But so urgent became the necessity of quelling domestic insurrection, that Mahmoud concluded a treaty of peace with Russia at Bucharest, ceding all those portions of Moldavia and Bessarabia lying beyond the Pruth; together with the fortresses on the Dniester and at the months of the Danube.  Servia, Greece and Egypt were all in rebellion. A treaty with the first named dependency in [815, conceded to the people of that province the administration of their local government, with a prince of their own choosing, but acknowledging the supremacy of Turkey. In Greece the insurrectionists, under the Pasha Ali, a vigorous but brutal man, defied the armies of Turkey for upwards of two years, when they were finally subdued. But the Turks and Greeks could never amalgamate into one nation ; the relation of conquerors and conquered could never be forgotten ; and in 1821 the Greek revolution broke out with all its horrors. The most vindictive measures, accompanied by the most violent excesses, were instituted against the Greeks in Constantinople and other Turkish cities. Men, women and children were murdered or sold into slavery.

The wildest fanaticism raged. The Greek bishops were assassinated in cold blood. The inhabitants of every town captured by the Turks were slaughtered, and the whole war was a succession of atrocities. Plunder, devastation and murder were the rule of the campaign, and the plan of extermination was adopted. On the 27th of January, 1822, Greece declared her complete independence of the Porte, and slavery was abolished. It was in this campaign that Marco Bozzaris and Ypsilanti signalised themselves in the struggle for liberty ; and Byron Sacrificed his life in behalf of the Greeks in 1824. For six years the unequal contest continued, yet the Turks were unable to subdue the determined revolu­tionists. At last the contest became so destructive and cruel that foreign nations felt compelled to interfere, and a treaty was formed in July, 1827, between France, Great Britain and Russia for the express purpose of putting an end to this desultory struggle. As Turkey, with characteristic arrogance, refused to accede to any terms, or listen to any foreign intervention, the joint fleets of the three powers sailed for the Mediterranean, and attacked and destroyed, on the 21st of October, the combined Turkish and Egyptian fleets, under Ibrahim Pasha, at Navarino, after an engagement lasting four hours. In retaliation, the Ottoman power seized all foreign ships in their waters, and enforced a general conscription to fill up the depleted ranks of their army. They firmly refused to acknowledge the independence of Greece, and demanded an indemnity for the destruc­tion of their fleet and the insult to their flag. As it now became necessary for the allies to employ force, a French army was thrown into the Morea, and the Turks were compelled to evacuate the peninsula, and to recognize by treaty the independence of Greece. By this unfortunate campaign not only was Greece lost to Turkey, but also the adjacent islands, which had largely supplied their fleet with sailors. Their fleet itself was annihilated, and their naval power and control of the neighboring seas were destroyed. This was considered by the Turks to be the severest loss they had as yet sustained, and the most humiliating disaster of their whole history.

So far as France and England were concerned this virtually ended the contest. But Russia still continued hostilities. Never was nation more poorly prepared for a struggle with a gigantic foe than Turkey at this hour. Her navy was destroyed, her troops consisted for the most part of raw levies, and she was weakened by internal dissensions and difficulties. Russia controlled the Black Sea with a powerful fleet, and was pouring down an immense army upon her. Still the Sultan mustered in new recruits from every quarter, and entered upon the campaign. Its result was disastrous. Varna was taken by the Russians ; the Balkan was crossed by their troops, and the capitol threatened. Turkey was forced to sue for peace, and to surrender large territories near the Caucasus and several fortresses on the Black Sea; and, further, to pay a money indemnity for the war expenses. Several important strongholds in Asia were also ceded to Russia, and further guarantees given for the semi-independence of Servia, Wallachia and Moldavia. This treaty was executed in 1827.

Meanwhile the constant wish of Mahmoud had been to carry out the reforms inaugurated by his former grand vizier Bairaktar, and which had been the means of bringing himself to the throne. The janissaries were the principal obstacles in the way, and he determined to crush them. In the capital they were all powerful, being thoroughly armed and organized. Mahmoud resolved to appeal to the patriotism of the people. He unfurled the sacred standard of the empire, which was popularly supposed to have been the banner carried by the prophet himself, and which was only displayed upon occasions of great emergency, and had not been seen by the populace for a generation. The people rallied to his support around the sacred flag. A force was formed from these recruits, artillery was obtained, and the attack upon the janissaries in the city commenced. A day of terrible civil conflict with immense slaughter ended in their entire destruction, and the corps was entirely abolished. The principal and most dangerous opponents of reform being now removed, Mahmoud proceeded to reorganize the army on the European basis. Pants and frock-coats were substitut­ed for the loose flowing robes and bloomer costumes of former times, and a red cap took the place of the turban. In training also the troops were compelled to conform to modern usage. Stern measures were resorted to, and disaffection and treason were vindictively repressed. Even the haughty order of the Ulema were compelled to adopt a more modern habit. These and other measures of internal reform were vigorously enforced. The new levies were mostly youths devoid of military experience, but had three important elements of mili­tary material, implicit obedience, enthusiasm, and temperance.

Hardly was the war with Russia closed when a new difficulty from an unexpected quarter menaced the unfortunate Mahmoud. Mehemet Ali, an able and ambitious soldier, who had distinguished himself in the campaigns against Napoleon and had risen from the ranks, was made pasha of Egypt by the sultan, and employed in suppressing the insurrection of the Wahebites in Persia, of which we have already made mention. In this service he had been uniformly successful. He recovered Medina in 1812, and Mecca in the following year ; and in the final battle of the campaign he offered five dollars for each head of his Persian foes which was brought before him, and it is said that over six thousand of these ghastly trophies were piled up near his tent. The Wahebite insurrection was completely suppressed in 1816, and the authority of the Porte re-established. Mehemet Ali had now established his reputation as a brave leader, and was made viceroy of all Egypt. During the long continued insurrection of Greece, moreover, he had lent effective aid, both with his army and fleet, to the Ottoman Government. But he was no less ambitious than brave and resolute, and immediately began to use his newly acquired power for the furtherance of his own designs. For this purpose he availed himself of force, reform, and intrigue. As an example of his craftiness and unscrupulousness it may be mentioned that it became necessary for the further­ance of his purpose to extirpate the Mamelukes, who were devoted to the Sultan. The chiefs of these, with their retinues, were accordingly invited to a grand festival, where they were seized and beheaded and their forces destroyed. Free from many Turkish prejudices, his troops were armed, equipped, and drilled after European fashions. He designed to convert Egypt into a distinct and independent kingdom, and found a dynasty of his own. In 1832, without consulting the Sultan, he sent a powerful army, commanded by his son, into Syria, assisted by a large fleet. The object of this attack was to subject that country that he might possess himself of its troops, as well as its stores of coal and iron. He soon took possession of all the strong places. Mahmoud, in vain, issued orders commanding him to retire. Mehemet was well aware that after the disastrous Russian and Grecian campaigns the Turkish government was in no position to enforce its decrees. Emboldened by success he determined to march his forces against Constantinople, the capital of the empire. He defeated the Grand Vizier on the 21st December, 1832, on the plain of Koniah, which left the way open, with no force before him capable of opposing his march. His army reached Bursa, only three days march from the Bosphorus.

The position of Mahmoud was critical in the extreme. He was unable to oppose the Egyptian army, and many adherents of the old system still existed who: bitterly opposed his reforms and welcomed the Egyptian leader as the opponent of those who had inaugurated these heretical innovations. In this crisis he called for the assistance of the most inveterate foe Turkey had ever known, Russia. The fleet of that power was thrown into the Bosphorus and an army was placed on the Asiatic shore, and as a compensation certain concessions were made to the Russians in relation to the navi­gation of the Dardanelles. Mehemet remained in possession of the vice royalty of Egypt with Syria added to his domains.

A short interval of peace succeeded; of such peace, that is, as the Ottoman government is able to boast. Hordes of outlaws constantly interrupted the peaceful pursuits of agriculture and commerce ; and marauding gangs infested the country and rendered life insecure. Against these lawless bodies Mahmoud’s government directed its efforts, and established a police system for the capital and larger towns. They attempted to establish some law and order and to reform the sanguinary habits of the populace. The power of the pashas was abridged and governors of provinces appointed to adjudicate in civil cases. Some roads were built and a newspaper established, and architecture was somewhat improved ; but the arts and manufactures generally were at a very low ebb. The Sultan ventured so far as to circulate portraits of himself, and to establish military bands, although any representation of the human form and the use of music are distinctly forbidden by the Koran. Further reforms on the part of this aggressive ruler were cut off by his death, which happened July 2nd, 1839.

Abdul Medjid succeeded his father on the throne, at seventeen years of age. Wholly inexperienced in the affairs of government, the prospect was poor of him effecting any improvement in the decaying fortunes of the empire. Fie had scarcely been inaugurated when intelligence came that Egypt, temporarily pacified, was again in insurrection, and shortly after the Turkish army was totally defeated by the forces of Mehemet Ali at Nissib, near the Euphrates. To this disaster was added the defection of the Turkish admiral, who went over with his fleet to the Egyptian side. The complete overthrow of the Ottoman empire seemed now to be imminent from its own inherent rottenness. But the jealousy of the various European powers, each one fearful that some other would get undue advantage by the division of Turkey, caused them to interfere to prop up the tottering fabric. By a treaty signed at London on the 15th July, 1839, by all the principal powers of Europe, except France, the vexed question was staved off for a few years. Mehemet Ali was given by this treaty the hereditary government of Egypt, and in addition the pashalic of Acre. That ambitious and determined potentate re­fused the offered terms; in consequence of which the allied fleets bombarded his fortified towns along the coast of Syria, including Beyrout, Saide, and St. Jean d’Acre. These places having fallen, the Egyptians abandoned Syria. Terms of peace were then agreed upon by which the viceroyalty of Egypt was confirmed to Mehemet Ali and his lineal descendants as rulers; they to pay an annual tribute to the Ottoman govern­ment and to maintain the laws of the empire.

A reform, forced upon the Turkish despotism by the united representatives of foreign powers, was now de­creed, by which all foreigners of whatever creed were to be allowed freedom of worship equally with Mahometans. This step was bitterly opposed by the more fanatical of the Turks, and many cases of insult and attack upon Christians followed. But although the decree was issued the government was powerless to carry it into effect except in Constantinople; and in other places it remained a dead letter upon the statute books. Another decree was issued by which all taxes were to be paid by the different pashalics to persons delegated to receive them direct from the central government. The result of this edict has been the iniquitous system of farming out the taxes and selling privileges to collect them in the different districts to the highest bidders; just as toll gates are sold out but with this distinction, that the tolls at the gates are uniformly fixed, while in the Turkish empire the tolls are fixed by the avarice and cupidity of the tax­gatherer, and the per centage is often from one quarter to one half of the whole fruits of labor.

In 1841, all the great powers of Europe joined in agreeing to the rule which closed the Dardanelles to the ships of war of all the powers. The boundaries between Turkey and Persia, long in dispute, were  adjusted in this reign, to the satisfaction of each. The Ottoman empire took no part in the struggle of Hungary against Austria, in 1848, although generally sympathizing with the Hungarians. In 1850 a further attempt was made to enforce the laws allowing free religious worship, and the position of foreign Christians and Jews was somewhat improved. Nominally all religions are free and on a par, but the bitter and ungovernable bigotry of the ignorant populace interferes in a great measure with free religious worship and renders the edicts of the government nugatory. Portions of the empire continued to be much troubled by the violent, lawless and predatory tribes of Arabs. So scattered is the Turkish realm, and so little within the control of law and order are the savage tribes which constitute a large portion of its population, that anything approaching to a reign of peace, progress, or prosperity within the confines of that unfortunate country is an impossibility.

In the year 1853, it became evident that the general peace of Europe, which had remained undis­turbed since 1815, would be again disturbed. The trouble which led to the conflict known as the Crimean War arose from so slight a question as the possession of the keys of certain resorts of pilgrims, the churches, sepulchres and holy places in Palestine, by the rival claimants of the Greek and Latin Churches. It was a question of precedence and privilege. Russia, as the head of the Greek Church, supported that body, while France, as the professed protector of Catholic interests in the East, supported the Latin priests. At the same time Russia again put forward the claim, by virtue of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, to exercise a protectorate over the Greek or orthodox Christians within the realms of the Sultan. The Turks were placed in a position of great perplexity. France moved a fleet from Toulon to Greek waters and stationed a war ship in the Dardanelles in defiance of the treaty, to influence the Turks. Russia, on the other hand, sent Menschikoff as a special ambassador to Constantinople with a threatening ultimatum in case the Russian demands were not complied with. An unpleasant dilemma was presented to Turkey. It was evident that she was being used as a mere cat’s paw to gratify the ambitious projects, the jealousies and fears of three or four powerful nations. So weak had she become and so low reduced in the European system, that her views of any question at issue were considered of no weight and wholly ignored. It became simply a question of the stand which other nations were prepared to take upon any question which might arise. The immediate dismemberment of the Turkish empire, then and there, would hare followed but for the jealousies of rival nations.

Finally the Turkish government, urged by France, decided to refuse the Russian demands. The immediate result of this action of the Turkish cabinet was the crossing of the Pruth by two divisions of the Russian army, and the occupation of the Danubian principalities of Wallachea and Moldavia, as a guarantee for the con­cession of the Russian demands. It' was construed as an act of hostility by the Turkish government, and caused great excitement. Turkey, however, was ill- prepared for war and preferred to treat with Russia. But it suited the purposes of France and England, who had already placed their fleets in Besika bay near the straits of the Dardanelles, that the Turks should not yield to the Russian demands ; although their representatives at the Vienna conference which followed, were forced to acknowledge that Russia had good grounds of complaint, and that the condition of the Christian population of Turkey was becoming intoler­able. They warned the Ottoman government that a continuation of such atrocious treatment would goad the Christians to revolt, numbering as they did, eight to one of the Musselman population in Europe.

Turkey rejected all demands, and as Russia refused to withdraw them, or to recall her troops, Turkey declared war on the 5th October, 1853, which gage of bat­tle was promptly accepted by Russia. On the 14th of the same month the allied fleets of France, England, Sardinia, and Turkey, entered the Dardanelles. Towards the end of the same month the Turkish army crossed the Danube at several points, under the leader­ship of Omar Pacha, a Christian renegade, whose real name was Lattas. Several conflicts between small bodies of troops followed without decisive results. At this juncture the Russian Admiral, on the Black Sea,, learned that an Ottoman fleet of a dozen sail had entered the Turkish harbor of Sinope; he immediately sailed thither with nine vessels and destroyed the entire fleet, together with 4,000 troops. France now (1854), dis­patched a land force to Turkey, under command of Marshal St. Arnud, the two divisions of their forces being commanded respectively by generals Canrobert and Bosquet. The English forces were under the com­mand of Lord Raglan. These troops landed first at Gallipoli, at the entrance to the Sea of the Marmora. They first devoted their attention to fortifying the Peninsula to prevent a Russian attack upon Constanti­nople ; after which they were moved to the Bosphorus, the British forces being encamped on the eastern side, and the French near Constantinople. Subsequently they were moved to the town of Varna, on the Black Sea. Here the allied French and English forces, num­bering 50,000 men, were being rapidly thinned by disease ; the climate was very severe upon the troops. Cholera broke out amongst them, and, to add to their trial, the town was nearly destroyed by fire, which left them shelterless. An ineffectual cavalry expedition,, under Lord Cardigan, had been the only movement thus far, and the troops were despondent; in consequence of all these discouragements, it was determined to move them at once to the Black Sea. They were therefore embarked on the 8th of September, 1854, and on the 13th 40,000 were landed near Eupatoria, north of Sebastopol, on Russian soil. On the 19th they began their march to Sebastopol. But the mismanagement was frightful; all the English tents were found to be stowed away on shipboard, and the troops were forced to sleep without shelter; the consequent deple­tion of the ranks from sickness was fearful.

Meanwhile the Russian and Turkish forces were engaged in struggles on the Danube. The Russians crossed the river and occupied several Turkish forts and laid siege to Silistria. Subsequently the Danubian territory was occupied by the neutral forces of Austria, with their head-quarters at Bucharest, by agreement with the allies. The campaign of the summer of 1854, on Turkish territory, ended in the utter discomfiture of the Turks. In July the Russians advanced towards Kars and attacked the Ottoman forces, numbering 50,000 men, but very badly officered ; the result of the engagement being the defeat of the Turks with heavy loss. A few days after they were again routed and fled behind the walls of Kars. During the summer of 1854 the allied fleets of France and England sailed for the Baltic Sea for the purpose of reducing Cronstadt, an immense Russian fortress, which practically gave them the control of the waters of that sea. A successful attack was, however, found to be impracticable and the idea abandoned. Another ineffectual attack was made on Solovetski, on the White Sea; but some small coast villages were destroyed. An attack on the fortifications of Sweaborg in the following year was also unsuccessful. The naval campaign of the allies in the north was, upon the whole, a failure.

On the 20th September, 1854, the fleets of Great Britain and France took up their position off the mouth of the Alma. The slope bristled in every direction with Russian artillery. Under cover of the guns of the fleets the allied troops attacked the position and suc­ceeded in carrying it, but with the heavy loss of 4,000 men. On the 23rd the forces pushed on towards the northern face of Sebastopol, intending to make an attack on that side. But so furious was the Russian fire upon both troops and ships that they were compelled to retire, and the proposed attack in that direc­tion was reluctantly abandoned, leaving, as it did, the road clear to the Russians to renew their supplies. Marshal St. Arnaud, at this time, resigned the command of the French forces to Marshal Canrobert, and died on his way back to Constantinople. On the 27th of September the allied forces took up their position in the valley to the north of Balaklava, the new point of attack. For three weeks both sides were engaged in getting batteries in position, in building earthworks and mounting guns. Within the walls of Sebastopol the activity could be seen by the allies; even the women and children assisting, so weak was the force. On the 17th October a furious bombardment began on both sides: the allied fleets participating. Those ships which were of light enough draft to approach close under the batteries escaped serious injury; many of the others were badly damaged by the Russian fire. The fire of the fleet did little damage to the forts. The Russians planned an attack on the field, designing thus to place the allied forces between two fires. This was carried out on the 25th October, and on the same day the British cavalry foolishly advanced under a deadly fire and was nearly annihilated. Early in November the Russians received reinforcements, and on the 5th of that month the battle of Inkerman was fought, in which the losses on both sides were great. Both sides claimed the victory; nothing decisive having been accomplished by either side. On the 14th November a terrific storm burst over the lake, destroying a number of transports and supply ships, and leaving the allied troops deprived of many of the necessaries for their health and comfort in the field. A few war ships were also destroyed, the storm lasting four days.

From this time, the Russians attempted scarcely any active operations against Balaklava. Both sides were now waiting for reinforcements; and the allies had to struggle with the stern difficulties of a Crimean winter, aggravated a thousand fold by wretched mismanagement and miserable want. The troops were worn down with cholera, dysentery, and fever; the commissariat was in a hopeless state of confusion, officers and men were without baggage, clothing and food, while traders at Constantinople were openly boasting of the enormous gains which they had made at their expense. The sufferings of the French were also great: but French soldiers are always more capable of helping themselves, while the English always needed someone to cook for them, and, as it was said, almost to put the food into their mouths. Again the latter paid exorbitant prices at the will of the peasants whose goods they bought: the former took what was to be had, laying down a price which, after fair consideration, was judged to be sufficient. In addition to this, the roads about Balaklava were in a hopeless and impracticable condition, while the French had been enabled, from having men to spare, to construct good roads over the whole ground which they occupied. The medical department was scarcely more satisfactory; the surgeons were indefatigable, but they were without the most necessary resources and appliances, and the disorder was almost greater at Constantinople than it was at Balaklava. This horrible state of things was in some degree remedied by the self-sacrificing devotion of some English ladies who, under Miss Florence Nightingale, went out for the purpose of tending the sick and wounded in the hospitals at Scutari; and by their aid a very great improvement was immediately effected in the condition of the troops.

But although the siege of Sebastopol was practically suspended, the Russians were not idle ; they scarped the ground in front of their batteries, threw up earthworks wherever they were needed, and enormously strengthened the whole fortifications of the city. When the siege began, it was comparatively defenceless; before the year had ended, it was almost impregnable: and this strength was owing mainly to the fact that these new works were not of stone but of earth, mounted with batteries of tremendous power. Perhaps the Russians were right in saying that history furnished few instances in which defences run up in a few months were maintained for nearly a year against all the appliances of the most skillful warfare of modern times.

On the 23rd of March, 1855, it became publicly known that the Kingdom of Sardinia had joined the allied forces The object of this move on the part of Sardinia was to gain the assistance of France in the then impending struggle for Italian unity. By the terms of the treaty, Sardinia engaged to furnish 15,000 men, and was to receive a loan of £1,000,000 from the British government.

In March, 1855, another effort was made to put an end to the war by a conference at Vienna; pending which the emperor of Russia died. But all hopes of peace were dissipated by the publication of a manifesto by his son and successor, in which he expressed his determination to carry out the plans of his father, and vigorously prosecute the war.

On the 9th of March, 1855, the Russians made a sortie and captured some small hills, upon which they raised a redoubt and sunk rifle-pits. From this position the French forces made an ineffectual attempt to dislodge them, as they were found to do great execution upon the allied troops. In May of this year general Pelissier assumed command of the French forces, and soon after they took possession of a strong position in front of the central bastion of the Russian fort. Expeditions were sent out by the allies to capture the neighboring towns, but they were mostly found deserted and burned by the Russians themselves.

A general assault was ordered for the 17th of June upon the Russian position, and a tremendous fire from the guns inaugurated it; but it ended in the complete repulse of the allied troops. Prince Gortschakoff issued an exulting order, congratulating the troops upon their success. This repulse, with care and sickness, so pressed upon Lord Raglan that he died on the 28th of June, and general Simpson succeeded him in command. As sickness and disease were making havoc with the troops, it was determined to make another general assault on the 8th of September, at midday, while the Russian forces were at dinner. The agreement was that the French should storm the Malakoff, and when this was successfully accomplished, the English were to seize the Redan. The French were successful at every point of their attack, but the English completely failed through defective arrangements, which led to inextricable confusion. But it now became clear to the Russians that, as there was no means of obtaining supplies and reinforcements, the city could not longer be held with safety. During the night which followed they blew up the forts and destroyed everything which could be of value to the allies, and, in good order and without loss of men, evacuated Sebastopol. On the morrow the allies entered to find a heap of ruins. Gortschakoff issued an address to the troops, complimenting them on their courage and endurance throughout the siege.

On the 10th of November General Simpson resigned the command of the army to sir William Codrington. Attacks were made by the fleets on some unimportant coast towns, which, however, were found to be mostly abandoned and the supplies destroyed by the Russians.

Meanwhile, the condition of the Turkish troops, under the English general Williams, besieged in the town of Kars, was deplorable. Their pay was in arrears for a year and a half; they were scantily supplied with provisions and clothing ; and were hard pressed by the Russian forces under Mouravieff. An assault was made on the town on the 29th of September by the Russians, which resulted in great loss on both sides. So closely were they besieged that assistance from the outside was impossible. Famine stared them in the face; the strug­gle could no longer be continued, and General Williams accordingly surrendered, giving up the town and war materials uninjured; the prisoners of war binding themselves not to serve again during the continuance of the war. General Williams and the other British officers were taken prisoners to Russia. Thus the whole army of Turkey had vanished like a shadow.

Thus ended the Crimean War. All parties were tired of the struggle, and negotiations for peace were commenced in December, 1855, and at a conference which followed in Paris, in February, 1856, an armistice was agreed upon. A treaty of peace soon followed, by the terms of which Turkey bound herself to protect her Christian subjects in all their rights, and guaranteed them perfect religious freedom, and to redress the evils and abuses of her government. The mouths of the Danube were to be freely opened to navigation. The principalities of the country were to enjoy all the privileges and immunities previously enjoyed, and which were now to be guaranteed to them by the contracting powers. The Black Sea was to be closed to the warships of all foreign nations ; and neither Russia nor Turkey was to establish any military-maritime arsenals on that sea. The allies evacuated the Crimea on the 12th of July, 1856.

The results of this war were immense treasures ex­pended by Great Britain and France, the sacrifice of thousands of lives and the destruction of vast quantities of property, while nothing whatever was accomplished in settling the vexed question of the status of Turkey. So far as the stipulations contained in the treaty of peace were concerned, they proved not to be worth the paper upon which they were written; for Turkey was utterly unable to afford efficient protection to her Chris­tian populations, and their grievances are greater than ever; edicts certainly were issued, but the government was powerless to enforce them : and the perversion of justice and gross corruption continued as before. While, as regards the Black Sea, Russia has completely repu­diated the treaty; has placed a large fleet thereon, and made her fortifications and arsenals stronger and more effective than ever. The complete helplessness of the Ottoman government was never more forcibly shown than during this war. Officered, drilled and commanded by foreigners, and supplied by the allies with all the material of war, her troops showed a pusillanimity and utter lack of patriotism in marked contrast with the fierce bravery of former times. Criminations and recriminations followed the close of the struggle in the British parliament, and so great were the differences of opinion that the Ministry was repeatedly changed.

John Bright remarked in debate: “In supporting the Porte against Russia we were fighting for a hopeless cause and for a worthless foe, while Mr. Layard, of opposite political leaning, stated tht “ England was on the brink of ruin, and had become the laughing-stock of all Europe and Lord Derby complained that the governments appeared to be claimants of peace from Russia instead of granting a peace desired by the enemy. The discussion upon the surrender of Kars and upon the Baltic operations was also very bitter; and the terms upon which the peace was concluded gave very little satisfaction in England. Throughout the contest the sympathies of Greece had been with Russia, many Greek subjects having, by the arbitrarily fixed boundary line, been left still under Turkish tyranny: and the indignation of the Greeks was aroused by the interfer­ence of Christian states to uphold Moslem tyranny. They felt that the dread of Russian power was all that stood between themselves and complete destruction. Consequently, in 1854, insurrections broke out in the Greek provinces still remaining in the Turkish empire, and the independence of all these provinces was pro­claimed. On the 5th of February they besieged and captured Arta, and defeated the Turks in two or three pitched battles ; and there can be no doubt but that their independence and annexation to Greece would have speedily followed ; but the allies, pampering the Turkish despotism, interfered, and by troops and ships suppressed the insurrection which the Porte was powerless to subdue.

Turkey now relapsed into a worse condition of dis­order and powerlessness than ever before. The government had, during recent years, adopted the plan of contracting foreign debts and so large had become the amount of these and so poor was the credit of the country, that of a loan of £16,000,000 sought for, only £2,000,000 could be obtained, and that at only about sixty per centum of its par value. Abdul Medjid was weak and incapable, and all positions were given to flatterers and favorites ; and the proceeds of loans went to fill the private coffers of the Sultan. In i860, one of the Druses having been killed, the death was laid to the charge of the Christians, and certain villages be­longing to them were burnt and the inhabitants massacred with the Turkish army in sight, but no effort was made to protect the victims. At Deir-el-Kammar the slaughter was fearful; and like proceedings followed at Damascus. The indignation of Europe was aroused. France acted promptly and demanded the punishment of the murderous bands. The Sultan was compelled to act, and several hundred Mussulmen were condemned and executed.

Abdul Aziz succeeded his brother on the 25th June, 1861, and followed his example of waste and corruption. The principalities were impatient of the taxation and despotism, and Servia succeeded in obtaining comparative self-government. An insurrection in Crete in 1866, aided by Greek assistance, taxed the resources of the country for several years and finally compelled the Porte to grant a mixed Christian and Mussulman government. From this time Turkey declined at a rapid rate. All promises and obligations to foreign nations were broken, and at home feebleness, waste, corruption and tyrannical misgovernment became the rule. The debt had now become onerous and the interest was not met. In 1875, Bosnia and Herzegovina rose in rebellion. They were assisted by volunteers from Servia and Montenegro, and received the sympathy of all Europe. A scheme of reforms proposed by Russia, Germany, and Austria was accepted by the Porte but refused by the insurgents, who had lost all faith in Turkish promises of reform. They decline to lay down their arms until their complete independence from Moslem rule is acknowledged. In May, 1876, in an outbreak of Mahometan fanaticism at Salonica, many Christians were murdered, including the consuls of Germany and France. These powers, with others, immediately demanded redress, and, the occasion being urgent, the Sultan was compelled to make some examples, and also to afford pecuniary reparation to the families of the deceased. The condition of affairs was now very critical in Constantinople, the principalities were all in insurrection, and the Christian population were only kept in subjection by the introduction of savage hordes from Asia. Russia was again threatening war, and the demand had now become general throughout the civilized world for the complete dismemberment of Turkey and for driving the Mussulman portion of the population of Turkey in Europe into Asia. Urged by a fanatic body of students called the softas, the grand vizier, Mahmoud Pasha, was removed by the Sultan. Whereupon the other ministers determined to depose Abdul Aziz. This step was deemed absolutely necessary for the safety of the country, owing to the general weakness, bankruptcy and misgovernment of the country and the threatening aspect of affairs without. On the 30th May, 1876, his palace was surrounded and he himself made a prisoner; and a few days after was either murdered or committed suicide.

The ministry then proceeded to install his nephew, Murad v, son of the former Sultan Abdul Metjid. The debt of the country had now readied the enormous sum of £200,000,000. It was impossible to meet even the interest, and a decree had been issued reducing the interest one half and repudiating the other. There was nothing to show for all this expenditure but palaces, colossal private fortunes, ironclads and artillery. The ministers of war and foreign affairs were assassinated in the council chamber as a means of effecting a change of government policy. Servia, under Prince Milan, and Montenegro, under Prince Nicolas, now declared war against Turkey, out of sympathy with the struggling Christian populations of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia aided and abetted the uprising, and one of her generals, Tchernayeff was placed in command of the Servian army. Desultory struggles followed without decisive results. At this juncture the world was startled by learning the horrible atrocities which were being perpetrated in Bulgaria. A rising of the Christians in that province was threatened, when the Beys armed the Mussulman population. The undisciplined and bigot­ed troops thus formed, commenced an indiscriminate slaughter of Christian non-combatants, and sacked and burned their villages with remorseless fury and horrible atrocities. Of these outrages we shall have occasion to speak again further on. Suffice it here to remark that the conviction is now forcing itself on every candid mind that the principalities can never again be subjected to Moslem despotism.

The new ruler, naturally feeble in body and mind, aggravated his ailments by intemperance, and become wholly unfit for the exercise of any power or authority, and was consequently deposed on the 31st August, 1876, and his brother Abdul Hamid II, the present sovereign, was raised to the throne, being the thirty­fourth ruler of the house of Othman. His character is as yet unknown, but it is easy to see that it would be utterly impossible at this date for any ruler, however brave or sagacious to resuscitate Turkey as a European power from her fallen condition.

 

CHAPTER II.

ORIGIN OF THE REBELLION AND WAR WITH RUSSIA.

 

The collection of onerous taxes, the employment of Turkish officials in positions of authority over peoples of a different race from themselves, as well as the strong religious antipathy existing between Christians and Mussulmen, have been the prime causes of the uprisings and local discontent which have so much retarded the progress of Turkey, and plunged that unfortunate country into a state of practical anarchy. The troubles which resulted first in local insurrection, then in a bloody civil war, and finally culminated in one of the most Titanic and exhausting wars which the world has had the misfortune to witness, date back as far as the year 1874. The collection of taxes in the Province of Herzegovina and other Provinces was resisted in that year, and the attempt to replenish an exhausted treasury by that means proved abortive. This led to renewed attempts on the part of the Turks to collect them by mounted troops, who rode through the Provinces, sword in hand, unscrupulously levying tithes, and blasting and destroying where they could not enforce immediate payment. Protest and complaint to the authorities led only to derision and punishment. The peasants resisted, but were compelled to fly to the rugged steeps of Monte­negro, there to find a welcome by a brave and hardy people in almost chronic insurrection against the Turk. The Sultan’s forces in contact with these hardy mountaineers met with almost constant defeat, and the attempt to revictual the beleaguered town of Nicsics repeatedly failed. Few in numbers, they fought a sort of guerilla warfare, and from the heights hurled down rocks upon the Turkish forces struggling through the narrow  passes hundreds of feet below. Tennyson thus epitomises these sturdy patriots :

“ They rose to where their sovran eagle sails.

They kept their faith, their freedom on the height.

Chaste, frugal, savage, armed by day and night

Against the Turk ; whose inroad nowhere scales

Their headlong passes, but his footstep fails,

And red with blood the Crescent reels from fight

Before their dauntless hundreds, in prone flight

By thousands down the crags and thro’ the vales.

O smallest among peoples! rough rock throne

Of Freedom! warriors beating back the swarm

Of Turkish Islam for five hundred years,

Great Tsernogora! never since thine own

Black ridges drew the cloud and brake the storm

Has breathed a race of mightier mountaineers.”

A general insurrection broke out in Herzegovina in July, 1875, and soon spread to all the neighboring Provinces. Servia was for a time kept from aiding the insurgents by foreign influence. Affairs had reached such a pitch in August, 1875, that foreign powers were compelled to take cognizance of it, and soon a joint note was despatched to the Porte by France, Russia, England and Austria, calling attention to the grievances of the Provincials and demanding reforms in local government. The Sultan firmly declined to yield to foreign pressure or to accord reforms until all the Provinces in insurrection should unconditionally surrender. By this time not less than 100,000 refugees had been ruthlessly driven from their homes, and were skulking in ravines, woods and mountain heights, in a state bordering on starvation. Whenever the Provincials felt strong enough to contend with their assailants, resistance followed ; but this seemed only to exasperate the Turks, and a horde of rapacious and savage troops were let loose upon the helpless populace, and deeds of cruelty followed which beggar description. Again the nations interfered, and the circular known as the “Andrassy Note,” signed by the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria, and ap­proved by England, France, Italy and other powers, was served upon the Turkish Government in January, 1876

This document demanded religious liberty, reform in taxation, and a mixed Commission to carry out the proposed reforms in the discontented Provinces. The Sultan promised to accept this remonstrance, and also to carry out the demands of the powers. But this evidence of weakness on the part of their chief ruler only exasperated and embittered the Turks, who became more and more vindictive. The promised reforms were not carried into effect, and in the spring of 1876 the Herzegovinian insurrection broke out with renewed violence, and the Roumanians also refused to pay fur­ther tribute to the Sultan, and placed themselves in a state of semi-independence and defiance to the Porte, The whole Northern country was now in open rebellion, and the more strictly Turkish Provinces were invaded by the Christian insurgents.

Intense bitterness characterized the struggle. The Turkish troops, more especially the Bashi-Bazouks and irregular forces, were remorseless and vindictive. Early in May the Bulgarians, who had hitherto taken no part in the struggle, goaded to desperation by the tyranny of their rulers and the rapacity of the tax-gatherers, broke out into insurrection. This was followed by some of the most revolting and horrible atrocities which the world has ever witnessed in any age of intolerant bigotry or bloodthirsty tyranny. On the 6th of May the French and German Consuls at Salonica were cruelly massacred in the mosque Saatli-Djami. This building is of great age and before the Ottoman conquest was dedicated to Christian worship, but is now the leading Turkish mosque of the town. Here, close by the cemetery and within a stone’s throw of the Governor’s residence, the murder was perpetrated. The occasion of this outburst of fury was the abduction by the Turks of a young Bulgarian girl for proselytizing purposes and her rescue by the American Consul. A riot ensued, and the French and German Consuls were murdered in the attempt to restore order. The excitement spread throughout Turkey, and foreign nations felt that the position of affairs was so critical, that the various fleets were ordered to rendezvous in Turkish waters.

During the excitement Murad V was deposed on the alleged ground of his insanity, after a reign of only a few months, and was succeeded in August, 1876, by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. This Sultan was born September 5, 1842, the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid, who reigned in Turkey during the Crimean war. By Turkish law a brother is- preferred to a son for succession to the throne, on account of seniority; and even a cousin will take precedence on the same ground, the right of succession belonging to the oldest male descendant of Othman, the founder of this dynasty. The mother of Hamid II was a Nubian slave. His education was of the scantiest description. In 1867 he visited the Paris Exposition, and afterwards adopted European costume. During his brother’s reign he was confined in the palace as a dangerous aspirant to the throne. On his accession to power he promised to extend educational facilities and grant reforms, pledges which he has but poorly redeemed.

Shortly after his accession to the throne came that series of horrors which have acquired a world-wide celebrity as the Bulgarian atrocities. Never has human feeling been more deeply shocked than it was when the news of these brutalities—the burning of Christian villages, the fiendish outrages, the massacres of old and young—was flashed by the telegraph and carried by the press or by word of mouth to almost every house and hamlet in every civilized land. It is difficult to arrive at any complete or trustworthy account of these deeds, nor is it probable that they will ever in all their sickening details be fully known. The most reliable accounts were contained in despatches from Sir H. G.. Elliot, the British Ambassador to Turkey, enclosing reports from Mr. Schuyler, of the American, and Mr. Baring, of the British, legations. Mr. Baring in his report estimates that in the Sandjak of Philippopolis 12,000 Bulgarians and 200 Mussulmans were killed, and 52 villages burned. He states that the most fearful tragedy of the whole insurrection occurred at Batak. Hearing that preparations for a revolt were going on here, Achmet Agha was ordered to attack the town. He summoned the inhabitants to give up their arms, but distrusting his intentions they refused to obey. A desultory fight succeeded, lasting two days. On the 9th of May the inhabitants had a parley with Achmet, who solemnly swore that if they gave up their arms not a hair of their heads would be touched. The villagers thereupon surrendered their arms, when all the money in the place was demanded, after receiving which the Bashi-Bazouks set on the people and slaughtered them like sheep. About 1,500 took refuge in a church, which baffled all attempts to fire it from the outside. The Bashi-Bazouks finally climbed to the roof, tore off the tiles, and threw burning pieces of wood and rags dipped in petroleum among the thickly packed mass of human beings below. At last the door was forced open, and the massacre was completed. The inside of the church was burned. The only survivor of this slaughter to be found was an old woman, she alone remaining alive of a family of seven. Mr. Baring continues :—“I visited this place on the 31st of July. Hardly a corpse had been buried. Where a man fell there he now lies. In the streets at every step lay human remains rotting and sweltering in the sun. The stench was overpowering. Five thousand in all were killed here, and about eighty girls were carried off. The surviving inhabitants live in wooden huts outside the village in great misery. To Achmet Agha and his men belongs the distinction of having committed per­haps the most heinous crime that has stained the history of the present century. Nevertheless he has been decorated by his government, as have also several other leaders in these cruelties. There was undoubtedly a revolution which had to be crushed by armed force, but the Government is to blame for calling out the Bashi-Bazouks, for had it sent regular troops earlier the Bashi-Bazouks would have been unnecessary. The manner in which the rising was suppressed was inhuman to the last degree, fifty innocent persons suffering for every guilty one.”

Mr. Schuyler, on the 22nd of August, reports to the American Government that the outrages of the Turks were fully established. He proceeds as follows :—“An attempt, however, has been made—and not by Turks alone—to defend and to palliate them, on the ground of the previous atrocities which, it is alleged, were committed by the Bulgarians. I have carefully investigated this point; and am unable to find that the Bulgarians committed any outrages or atrocities, or any acts which deserve that name. I have vainly tried to obtain from the Turkish officials a list of such outrages. No Turkish women or children were killed in cold blood. No Mussulman women were violated. No Mussulmans were tortured. No purely Turkish village was attacked pr burned. No Mussulman’s house was pillaged. No mosque was desecrated or destroyed.” Mr. Schuyler estimates the number of the murders to have exceeded 15,000, and gives a heartrending narrative of the scenes of bloodshed and suffering.

Turkey lost by these massacres the sympathy, if any remained for her, of the civilized world. The people, the politicians and the press were alike outspoken in their denunciations. Mr. Gladstone wrote in relation to them :—“The Turkish Government has been guilty of excesses than which none more abominable have disgraced the history of the world. The daily mis­government has given place to wholesale massacres,

‘ Murder, most foul as at the best it is,

But this most foul, strange, and unnatural,’

the elaborate and refined cruelty—the only refinement of which Turkey boasts!—the utter disregard of sex and age—the abominable and bestial lust—and the utter and violent lawlessness which still stalks over the land.” No attempt at punishment was made, and shortly after a complete amnesty was announced to cover all those implicated.

Meanwhile Servia had for a long time been collect­ing and massing her forces in hostility to Turkey, of whichcountry she was, as we have seen, a sort of semi­independent province, and now having drilled some 90,000 men, she declared war against the empire on the 29th of June, 1876. On the 2nd of the following month she marched her troops across the frontier and formed an alliance with Montenegro. It is alleged that her decision was the result of Russian instigation, and certainly she was materially assisted by Russian soldiers who joined her army in large numbers though in an individual way. Victory rarely perched upon the Servian banners, the troops being badly drilled and ineffi­cient. The Powers now proposed an armistice which Servia declined. But it was finally forced upon her, notwithstanding the opposition of Tchernayeff, the Russian General of the Servian forces. The latter caused the army to proclaim Prince Milan, King of Servia, but Russia interfered and caused him to refuse the empty title. Hostilities were, however, soon resumed between Servia and Turkey. The sympathies of Europe were with Servia, and numbers of English ladies assumed charge of the hospitals and nursed and cared for the wounded. Numerous fights and skir­mishes followed, with varying results, success, however, generally remaining with the Turks. Tchernayeff bravely marshalled and skilfully disposed his forces, and was ably assisted by General Zach, of the Servian army, and by the Russian volunteers; yet, notwithstanding this the Servian forces were badly defeated before Djunis, which place was taken by the Turks. Another great struggle followed before Alexinatz, which is known as the battle of Morava. The Turks fought fiercely, but were badly officered and manoeuvered. Their sol­diers met the Servians in front of their own positions and decided the fortune of the day by personal bravery. A correspondent on the field of battle thus describes the fierce struggle :—

“We had been watching the masses of Servian troops on the somewhat distant hills, and some of our guns had actually taken a shot or two at them for some time, when we became suddenly aware that their advanced guard was very considerably nearer to us than we had imagined. So rapidly had they, indeed, already engaged and driven in our outposts, that it was clear a very great force was immediately in our front, and that we should have to bear the brunt of the battle. I do not know how every individual Turk felt at this supreme moment, but of this I am certain—that every man I saw looked as though he were ready to spring immediately at his hereditary foe, and would be glad when the order was given. Many of them had not long to wait, for the trumpets sounded, they ‘fell in,’ and were soon rushing down the hill, not as though they were in fear of the enemy, and were anxious to gain the cover of their trenches, but as though they longed to get at and grapple with him. It was fraught with danger to the Turk, but it was terribly grand. Many a man was stretched on the turf ; many a man returned slowly and painfully to the lines from whence he had come, but on went the companies, one after another, till the bottom of the slope was gained and the enemy confronted. Then opened such a fire as can never be described. It was the meeting of desperate men—of Serbs urged forward by reckless Russian leaders, of Turks longing to strike their enemy. The question was, which could be reinforced the longest and the quickest. Fresh Servian battalions were coming into action every moment and extending the line of attack; fresh Turks were coming down the slope, and, gaining the shelter-trenches which, as I have before remarked, the Turks, with admirable forethought, had constructed. At first the men could not be persuaded to lie down; they wanted to go forward, and I expected every moment to see them charge with the bayonet. But they were gradually prevailed upon to avail themselves of cover, and hence the great disparity between their loss and that of the Serbs. Among these latter we could see that great slaughter was taking place, for their line, although continually fed, did not appear to increase ; while in addition to the rifles of our infantry, our guns were able to throw whole volleys of shell in among the blue-coated soldiers. With what a yell went those terrible missiles on their way ! They seemed to break, every one of them, exactly where wanted, and to strew the ground with dead and dying every moment. The rifles, quickly seconding them, added to the car­nage which took place in that valley. I will not pre­tend to say whether the Servians actually crossed the bridge over the Morava ; by some who were on the spot it is denied, by others admitted. I thought at the time that they did. Moreover, as the fight progressed, our line wavered as the Servians in increasing numbers were hurled against our left flank. But this was only for a while ; the men were simply borne back, not dis­heartened, and fresh troops were hurrying up to succour them, Hafiz Pasha himself being among the foremost in that gallant fight. It was a fearful struggle, truly, and seemed to extend all along the line at this moment; indeed, it is believed that sixty Servian battalions were at that moment engaged. But all to no purpose ; the steady courage of the Turks prevailed against the newly- found bravery of the Serbs, and was making itself more and more apparent every moment. The ground was covered with disabled Serbs, and still that astonishing roll of musketry maintained itself along the Turkish front, the men firing each five or six shots a minute. At length the crisis came. The Servians made one more great effort, there was a tremendous crash, a fearful roll, as if of thunder, and then the enemy begin to give ground. With a wild shout, the Turks rise and pour volley after volley into their retreating ranks. Our guns fire shell, which burst over their heads, in front of and behind them, dealing death and destruction all around every moment. The Servians turn and fly; their effort has been in vain ; they must seek the shelter of their guns or be killed to a man. Without further delay they rush to their haven of comparative safety, leaving their dead and dying on the ground, and the Turkish forces alone in their well-earned glory. No wonder that next morning Hafiz Pasha and his colleague who aided him and was wounded, Lahlmed Pasha, were raised to the grade of Divisicn Generals from that of Commanders of Brigade. They had fought a grandly sustained fight, and had fairly won their admirable success.”

This battle resulted in the capture of Alexinatz in October, 1876, and practically ended the Servian war, the remaining encounters being confined to slight skirmishes. An armistice of six weeks’ duration, arranged by the powers, followed. As no improvement had been effected in the internal affairs of Turkey, Russia now declared that the misrule of Turkey should be summarily ended by armed interposition of the powers. General Igna­tieff, Russian Ambassador, was instructed to present to the Porte the ultimatum of his government, which he did on the 31st of October, in the following language :

“The events which have taken place during the past year in some provinces of the Ottoman Empire, and which have ended in the war between Turkey and the principalities of Servia and Montenegro, could not be regarded with indifference by the Imperial Cabinet, after having found a deep echo in the Russian nation, united by various ties and secular traditions to the Christian population of the Balkan peninsula. His Majesty, the Emperor, has shared the sympathies of his people, and in accord with the other great cabinets, has tried to re­establish peace and order. The guaranteeing powers having agreed to lay down as the basis of a pacification the maintainance of the status quo ante in Servia and Montenegro, the military operations now being executed by the Ottoman troops constitute a useless effusion of blood ; and as the carnage of the past few days has assumed proportions which wound the sentiment of humanity without being able to lead to any result, the Emperor, my august master, cannot any longer tolerate it, in presence of the delay experienced in the negotia­tions for a restricted armistice. I am, therefore, charged to declare to the Porte, in the name of his Majesty, that if, in the space of twice twenty-four hours after the de­livery of the present note, an effectual and unconditional armistice of from six weeks to two months, embracing all the combatants be not concluded, and if peremptory orders be not sent to the Turkish commanders "to cease all military operations immediately, I shall be bound to leave Constantinople with all the personnel of the Imperial Embassy.”

The discussion of the question of joint occupation, led to the proposal for a conference to settle the whole matter at issue, which proposal was finally agreed to, and Constantinople was fixed upon as the place of meeting.

In consequence of this agreement the determination which Russia had arrived at to occupy Bulgaria with her troops was abandoned, and all hopes for the time centred in the conference. In due time the repre­sentatives of the various Powers assembled. General Ignatieff represented Russia; Turkey sent Safvet Pasha and Edhem Pasha, the former of whom, according to diplomatic usage, became president, the meeting being held in the capital of Turkey. France sent Comte Chaudordy and Comte Bourgoing; Austria, Count Zichy, her Ambassador, and Baron Chalice, Consul­General in Roumania; Count Costi represented Italy; Lord Salisbury and Sir Henry Elliot, England; while Germany sent a delegate whose antecedents were ominous, inasmuch as he had been Ambassador at Copenhagen before the Danish war, at Vienna before the Prusso-Austrian campaign, and at Paris before the late French war. The delegates met at the Admiralty Palace, and at their first meeting placed upon the table the proposals which they had previously agreed to submit to the Turkish representatives. At the second meeting, on the 28th of December, 1876, an armistice of two months was agreed upon. It soon, however, became evident that Turkey resisted all interference, and was determined not to accept any of the numerous proposals offered. One after another of these were rejected, and delays were constantly caused by the Turkish delegates.

Finally the commissioners became convinced that the Turkish Government had no intention of bringing the negotiations to a satisfactory termination, and that further discussion would be but a waste of time. They therefore agreed upon the following terms as their ulti­matum, with notice to the Turkish Ambassadors, that unless accepted by the Ottoman Government, the lega­tions would be withdrawn from Constantinople. The final terms offered were as regards Montenegro, the rectification of the frontier and the annexation of some small outlying territory, and perfect freedom of the navi­gation of the Boyna. As regards Servia, that principality was to be restored to the ante war condition, and her frontier to be regulated upon the Bosnia side ; and in relation to both of them, the evacuation of their terri­tory by the Ottoman troops, and of the Turkish terri­tory by the provincial troops ; an exchange of prisoners of war and a general amnesty to be proclaimed on both sides. As regards Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria, their Governor-Generals to be appointed for the first five years by the Porte, with the previous consent of the powers. The provinces to be divided into sandjaks, with mutessaries at their heads whom the Porte was to ap­point for a fixed number of years ; and also into cantons of from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, with local authorities chosen freely by the people of each community, whose sphere should embrace all questions of local interest to the canton. Provincial assemblies, to be elected by the councillors of the cantons, and these assemblies to fix the budgets of the provinces, and to appoint administra­tive councillors for them, whose advice the Governor­Generals should accept, and who should have the right of appeal to the Porte.

To ameliorate the system of taxation, the provincial assemblies were to fix and distribute all the taxes, with the exception of customs, duties, telegraph receipts, and the taxes on tobacco and spirits. Farming out the taxes to be entirely abolished, and all arrears of taxes to be cancelled. The budgets to be fixed every five years for each province in conformity with the revenue; one por­tion to be applied to the payment of the general debt, another to the uses of the central government, and the third to local uses.

The administration of justice to be reorganized, and the judges made independent. The provincial governors were to appoint the judges for the civil and criminal courts, with the consent of the council. Members of the courts of appeal to be appointed by the Porte, upon nomination by the governors, all proceedings of the courts to be public. For special affairs of the different religious communities, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts was to be maintained.

Complete freedom of religious worship was to be decreed. Each community to maintain its own clergy and all religious buildings and establishments for public education. All the various languages were to be upon an equal footing in the tribunals and in the offices of the government. The acquisition of the state lands by immigrants was to be facilitated.

To ensure the execution and maintainance of these reforms, the powers were to have the right to appoint two commissioners of control, to superintend and enforce the treaty stipulations, and to assist the local authorities with advice in all measures relating to public order and security. Such commissioners to be governed by special instructions.

After fully stating their positions in relation to the required reforms, the various plenipotentiaries formally announced that they had orders from their respective governments, to withdraw from the capital, if they were rejected by the Porte. Safvet Pasha, one of the Turkish Plenipotentiaries, expressed his opinion most decidedly that his government could not accept the two points relating to foreign surveillance; but added, that he would communicate the terms to his government, who would undoubtedly take them into respectful considera­tion, and asked until the end of the week to return the final reply of the Porte.

Agreeably to his promise, the determination of the Ottoman Government was communicated to the pleni­potentiaries shortly thereafter. Their answer stated that Turkey acceded to all the conditions of the treaty, except­ing the appointment of the governors, with consent of the powers, and the clause for the employment of foreign commissioners to advise and oversee These two points she rejected unconditionally, as derogatory to the dignity and independence of the empire.

Thus the conference, which England had been so earnest in pushing forward, ended in complete failure, and the diplomatists returned home chagrined and dis­appointed, and all hopes of a peaceful solution of the questions at issue seemed to be at an end.

Russia afterward issued a circular-note to the powers, asking what was to be done in the then existing condi­tion of affairs, and dispatched General Ignatieff to the several courts to learn the views of the various govern­ments on the subject. This led to the issue of a protocol, which was signed in London on the 31st of March, 1877, by representatives of the various powers, in which they announced their determination to watch carefully the manner in which the promised reforms in Turkey were carried out, and concluded by saying that they reserved to themselves the “right, in common, to consider as to the means best fitted to secure the well-being of the Christian population and the interests of the general peace.” Most of the signers made some reservation, England, that both should disarm ; Russia, that Turkey should send an ambassador to St. Petersburg to discuss disarmament; and Italy, that she should be bound no longer than the common agreement was maintained. This document was rejected by Turkey with indignation, and was called a measure of intimidation, to which she could not and would not submit. She finally declared that, “ strong in the justice of her cause, and trusting in her God, Turkey had determined to ignore what had been decided without her consent and against her.”

She persistently refused to make any concession which interfered with the integrity of her territory, or questioned her sovereignty and independence. She would carry out reforms only in her own way. War, she declared, was preferable to wearisome suspense. Thus, the destinies of peace or war hung in the balance, and all eyes were turned to Russia, as the power most for­ward in pressing reforms and intervention, to see what action she would now pursue. The world was not long held in suspense. On the 24th of April, 1877, a declara­tion of war against Turkey was issued by the Czar, couched in the following language :

“ Our faithful and beloved subjects know the strong interest we have constantly felt in the destinies of the oppressed Christian population of Turkey. Our desire to ameliorate and assure their lot has been shared by the whole Russian nation, which now shows itself ready to bear fresh sacrifice to alleviate the position of the Christians in the Balkan Peninsula. The blood and property of our faithful subjects have always been dear to us, and our whole reign attests our constant solicitude to preserve to Russia the benefits of peace. This solicitude never failed to actuate, us during the deplorable events which occurred in Herzegovina, Bosnia and Bulgaria.

"Our object before all was to effect an amelioration in the position of Christians in the East by means of pacific negotiations, and in concert with the great Euro­pean powers, our allies and friends, for two years we have made incessant efforts to induce the Porte to effect such reforms as would protect the Christians in Bosnia, Bulgaria and Herzegovina from the arbitrary measures of the local authorities. The accomplishment of these reforms was absolutely stipulated by anterior engage­ments contracted by the Porte toward the whole of Europe. Our efforts supported by diplomatic represen­tations, made in common with other governments, have not attained this object. The Porte has remained unshaken in its formal refusal of any effective guarantee for the security of its Christian subjects, and has rejected the conclusions of the Constantinople Conference. Wishing to essay every possible means of conciliation in order to persuade the Porte, we proposed to the other Cabinets to draw up a special protocol comprising the most essential conditions of the Constantinople Confer­ence, and to invite the Turkish Government to adhere to this international act, which states the extreme limits of our peaceful demands. But our expectation was not fulfilled. The Porte did not defer to this unanimous wish of Christian Europe, and did not adhere to the con­clusions of the protocol. Having exhausted pacific efforts, we are compelled by the haughty obstinacy of the Porte to proceed to more decisive acts feeling that our equity and our own dignity enjoin it. By her refusal, Turkey places us under the necessity of having recourse to arms.

“Profoundly convinced of the justice of our cause, and humbly committing ourselves to the grace and help of the Most High, we make known to our most faithful subjects that the moment foreseen when we pronounced words to which all Russia responded with complete unanimity, has now arrived. We expressed the intention to act independently when we deemed it necessary, and when Russia’s honour should demand it. In now invok­ing the blessing of God upon our valiant armies, we give them order to cross the Turkish frontier.

(Signed) “ALEXANDER.”

A circular from Prince Gortschakofif, embodying the Czar’s declaration of war, was also communicated to the Powers, in which he wrote :—

“‘You will bring this resolution to the cognizance of the Government to which you are accredited. In fulfilling the duty which is imposed upon him by the interests of Russia, whose peaceable development is impeded by the constant troubles in the East, His Majesty is convinced that he at the same time responds to the views of Europe.” (Signed) “ GoRTSCHAKOFF.”

To this circular Turkey replied by a counter-note from Safvet Pasha, in which he asked the object of Russia in declaring war, and appealed to the mediation of Europe under the guarantees of the Treaty of Paris. He called upon the Powers to arrest the threatened conflict—“ a conflict of which the Sublime Porte can justly repudiate the entire responsibility.” The Sultan also issued an address to the army, urging them to devotion and bravery, and concluded as follows:—

“As Russia has declared war, we are forced to take up arms. We have always wished for peace and tranquillity, and have listened to the advice of the Powers in this respect. But Russia wants to destroy our inde­pendence and our soil. Russia attacks us. God, who protects right and justice, will grant us victory. Our soldiers will defend with their blood the country gained by their ancestors, and, with the help of God, maintain the independence of the Osmanli. The nation will pro­tect the wives and children of the soldiers. Should it be necessary, the Sultan will go to the army, and raise the Standard of the Khalifat and of the Sultanat. The Sultan is ready to sacrifice his life for the honor and independence of the country.”

The sympathy of Germany was decidedly with Rus­sia, as was also, though perhaps in a less marked degree, the countenance of Austria and Italy. Between the first three of these it was generally understood that an alliance of some sort had been formed. The sympathy of the English liberals was also decidedly with Russia, almost every spark of friendliness towards the Turks having been stifled by the cruelty and rapacity of the latter. All the leading English liberals were outspoken in their denunciations of the Porte. The government of the day, however, took a different view, and their opinion on the subject may be gathered from the despatch of Lord Derby to Lord Loftus, in reply to Gortschakoff’s circular. This memorandum is dated May 1st, and sets forth that Her Majesty’s Government received the news with deep regret, and that they cannot accept Prince Gortschakoff’s statements and conclusions as justifying the resolution taken. The Porte, though protesting against the protocol, had again affirmed its intention of carrying out the promised reforms, and the British Government could not, therefore, admit that its answer had removed all hope of deference on its part to the wishes and advice of Europe. The despatch then refers to Prince Gortschakoff’s assertion of the belief that Russia’s action is in accordance with the sentiments and interests of Europe, and points out that it is a contra­vention of the Treaty of Paris (1856), by which Russia and the other signatory Powers each engaged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Otto­man Empire. Lord Derby goes on to say that the Czar has separated himself from the European concord hitherto maintained, that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of such an act, and that the British Government feel bound to state that the decision of the Czar is not one which can have their concurrence or approval.

 

CHAPTER III.

RELATIVE CONDITION AND RESOURCES OF RUSSIA AND TURKEY.

 

Before proceeding to detail the events which followed fast upon the declaration of war between the great Em­pire of Russia and the Ottoman Dominion, it may be interesting to examine for a moment the relative conditions of the combatants, and compare the resources of the two countries. The Empire of Russia, the largest in the world, embraces one half of Europe and about one third of Asia, much of which, however, is cold and uninhabitable. Her population is not very accurately given, but is estimated to number eighty million souls. This immense population gives her a great advantage in recruiting and strengthening her army. For administrative purposes Russia is divided into districts, each under a military commander. This officer has charge of the recruiting in his district, and is responsible for the efficiency of the troops. There are numerous military academies scattered throughout the country for edu­cating officers for regimental and general commands. The regular army of Russia on a peace footing is about 150,000 men ; on a war footing about 800,000 men. There are in addition some 200.000 Cossacks who can be called into service at short notice, making together an available force of about one million men. Military service is obligatory upon the whole nation. The entire force is divided into an active army, a reserve, and a militia or general levy. The duration of service is six years; from the army and reserve they pass into the militia. The Imperial Guard is recruited from the best of the troops. But in consequence of the large population military service presses less heavily upon the people than in most other countries of Europe. The troops in service are generally very poorly fed, the diet being black bread and rice and a small ration of meat for soup, and some quass or beer. The pay of a private is less than a penny a day. By the rules of the Greek Church 169 days in the year are fast days, during which he receives no meat. Yet the troops are hardy and capable of great exertion. His clothing is coarse and ill-made. He carries a heavy knapsack and rifle with bayonet always fixed, and short sword at his side in addition, together with ninety rounds of ammunition, yet is equal to long marches. With horses Russia is well supplied, having more than France, Germany and Britain combined. The arm mostly in use by the troops is the Berdan rifle ; and the field pieces are four to ten pounder breech-loading steel cannon. The navy is principally distributed in the Baltic and Black Seas; and there are smaller fleets in the Caspal, Aral, Sibe­ria, and White Sea waters. The total comprises 108 men of war, 1,477 officers, and 7,217 seamen. The iron­clad fleet of war comprises the powerful turret ship Peter the Great, eight frigates, three corvettes, fourteen turret monitors, and three floating batteries. The entire fleet now consists of 225 steam vessels, with 521 guns, and a total tonnage of 175,501.

The Roumanian army in alliance with Russia num­bers about 40,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 110 guns, under command of Prince Charles. There are some territorial troops or militia in addition to these. Montenegro has about 25,000 men of all arms.

Alexander II, the present Emperor of Russia, was born on the 29th of April, 1818, the eldest son of Nicholas I. and Charlotte, formerly Princess Charlotte of Prussia. His education was supervised by the Rus­sian poet and scholar, Joukowski ; and his military training by the German General Morder. He entered the military service in 1831, and four years later was attached to the Grenadier Regiment as Colonel; and still later became Inspector of the military schools of the Empire. In 1840, he travelled in Germany, and afterwards married the Princess Maria of Hesse-Darm­stadt. In March, 1855, during the Crimean war, he succeeded his father on the throne, having been crowned at Moscow with great pomp. He has effected great reforms in the laws and administration of the Empire, the crowning work of which was the total abolition of the national curse of serfdom, where twenty millions of people were set free. He inherits the Russian ambition for territorial aggrandizement, and has made consider­able acquisitions in Central Asia. His eldest son is the Grand Duke Alexander, now commanding in Bulgaria, who was born in 1845, and married in 1866 to the Princess Dagmar, sister of the Princess of Wales. The Emperor has four other sons, Vladimir, Alexis, Sergius and Paul; and one daughter, Marie, married in 1874 to Prince Alfred of England. The two brothers of the Emperor, the Grand Dukes Nicholas and Michael, hold important commands in the Russo-Turkish war.

The Turkish Empire has a population of about 32,000,000 souls ; but this number includes a dozen diverse races, and many provinces in actual insurrection. Her army on a war footing prior to the insurrection of the provinces, was 128,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, and 552 guns. In addition to this force there were large numbers of Bashi-Bazouks, Spahis, Bedouins and other armed, but irregular, troops.

The Turkish private soldier is by nature and tradi­tion warlike. He believes in the destiny of the Ottoman race to conquer the world. He is easily stirred by an appeal to his religious fanaticism to undergo the greatest hardships in the sacred cause. He is able to live upon food so scanty that almost any other than the Turk would starve upon it. He is by nature obedient—the obedience of apathy and constitutional Oriental laziness. He goes into battle believing in Fate, and encounters the enemy’s bullets with stolid indifference, believing that it matters not whether he encounters one shot or a million, for he will stand or fall according as it has been predestined by Allah. On the march each m an carries some meal in a bag, and a small iron pan, in which he bakes cakes on arriving in camp. Want of transport prevents proper cooking utensils being carried.

Since the commencement of the war with Russia, Turkey has massed 200,000 men north of the Balkans; 80,000 in Armenia; 25,000 in Montenegro; 17,000 in Herzegovina and Bosnia; 13,000 in Albania, and about 30,000 south of the Balkans; making in all a force of about 365,000 men of all arms, exclusive of small garrisons scattered throughout the empire. The infantry are armed principally with Peabody and Remington rifles, from the United States, a contract having been made for half a million of these guns, and two hundred million metallic cartridges. She has 40,000 horses and 508 pieces of cannon ; the latter comprising many Krupp breech-loaders. Every battalion of chasseurs destined for mountain warfare is provided with two mitrailleuses, portable on mules’ backs. She has also 500 pieces of siege artillery for the armament of the forts of the Bos­phorus and other exposed positions. The navy comprises 32 ironclad vessels, some of them of the largest tonnage. In addition to these, there are about a dozen ships of the line, twenty frigates, and a considerable fleet of corvettes and river gunboats. The most formidable ironclad is the “Mcsoudiye,” heavily armored with twelve inches of iron, and carrying 12 guns of eighteen tons each. There is no great disparity in the naval power of the two nations. The weakness of the Turkish navy consists in the unseaman-like character of the men, and the lack of dashing and able commanders.

The declaration of war by the Czar was, of course, preceded by the withdrawal of the Russian Embassy from Constantinople, and no time was lost in despatching troops towards Turkish territory ; indeed, the Turks complained that some of the Russians were over the frontier before the declaration was actually issued. Within a fortnight they were swarming in Roumania, that government having signed a convention giving the Russians the right to use the roads, rivers, railways and telegraphs, Russia on its side guaranteeing the inviola­bility of the country.

During the first two or three weeks the military operations in Europe were confined to the march forward of the Russians towards the Danube, and the successive occupation of the chief towns and strongholds on the Roumanian side, with now and then an attempt, unsuc­cessful by either party, to effect a passage of the river.

In Asia, about the middle of May, the Turks cap­tured Soukhoum Kaleh, whilst the Russians scored a victory at Ardahan, an important fortress, which they took by storm. The destruction of a Turkish ironclad at Ibraila caused great excitement and rejoicing in the Russian lines, the Russians believing that it was the powder magazine on board that ignited by one of their shells dropping down the funnel, although the only Turk who escaped to tell the tale, declared that it was the result of an accident. As time went on the events became of a more exciting character. The Russian advance on the Danube was continued steadily and methodically, and there were frequent artillery duels between the opposing batteries on either side. The Turkish flotilla was very busy, and claimed a victory over some Russian gunboats, but whatever advantage they may have gained was counter-balanced by a bril­liant exploit of two Russian lieutenants, who commanded four small boats, in a torpedo attack upon a Turkish monitor, which they succeeded in destroying.

In Asia, the troops under the Grand Duke Michael began a vigorous siege of Kars, and there was a good deal of fighting round Batoum. On the 15th and 16th of June there was an important engagement at Zeida Khan, of the right wing, under Mehemet Ali, who lost 1,000 of his men, the survivors being driven back upon Delibaba. In Europe, Suleiman Pasha, having succeeded in relieving Niksics, and formed a junction with Ali Saib Pasha, advanced with him toward Cettinjie, their pro­gress being disputed inch by inch by the brave Montenegrins.

The river Danube, which divides the provinces of Turkey from Roumania, had been relied upon by the Turks as their front line of defense, and looked upon as a formidable barrier to the Russian march southward. In this they were doomed to be disappointed, for the Russian army, instead of massing between Rustchuk and Nicopolis to effect a crossing, as had been anticipated by the Turks, as well as by onlookers generally, hurried forward from Galatz. The result of this was, that while the Turkish troops were massed in great force along the bank of the more westerly portion of the river, the Drobrudscha, or lower Danube, was almost deprived of troops. Before serious opposition could be offered by the Turks, the Russians had thrown a bridge across the river. The Danube was still very high. A great part of the valley was still under water, which, however, was rapidly subsiding. The bridge was constructed from both sides of the river at once, for th6 Turks allowed the Russians to cross over and begin the bridge on the Turkish shore at the same time that it was begun on the Roumanian. A great part was constructed on trestles, and it was only in the real channel, where the water is swift and deep, consisting of a space of perhaps a thou­sand yards wide, that pontoons had been used. The pontoons had been floated to their places, anchored to trestle work constructed on both sides at the same time, the trestle work being continued along the old channel towards Matchin, on the road to the latter place.

General Zimmermann crossed the Danube during the night with 1,500 infantry of the corps d'armée, and 2,000' men of the 40th Regiment of Infantry crossed in front of Galatz. The secret of the crossing was well kept, and the operation was conducted with unexampled daring. The men and horses crossed in flat boats, while the cannon were brought across on barges. After they had crossed, the two detachments carried after them, through the inundated marshes on the river side, a num­ber of boats and rafts. Next day 2,500 men of the 7th Regiment of Infantry, with their cannon, crossed during the day, and joined their companions, under the com­mand of Brigadier-General Gukoff. The troops, which had come from Galatz, took up their positions on the first breast-works on the chain of mountains' separated by a deep valley from the other heights which com­manded Matchin, and established themselves in the villages of Garbina and Vaharei, nine miles to the south­east of Galatz. At three o’clock in the morning the first cannon shot was fired from the Turkish batteries. At six o’clock a violent cannonade commenced. As the Russians had neither cavalry nor artillery, their infantry had to attack the Turkish cavalry with the bayonet, but on the arrival of a Russian cannon the fight assumed a different aspect. The Turks stopped firing and with­drew. The Russian troops having been reinforced by the remaining portions of the brigade then obtained a firm footing on the Budjak heights. The Russian official report said that the troops displayed admirable valour, and that the loss was seven officers and forty-one men killed, and two officers and eighty-eight men wounded. On the night of the 22nd the Czar, with the Czarewitch and the Grand Dukes Vladimir, Alexis, and Sergius, arrived at Galatz, and paid a visit to the hospital.

Immediately after this General Zimmermann took possession of Matchin, which had been abandoned by the Turks, and was occupied by the Russians without fighting. The clergy and Christian population received the regiment with great ceremony, crosses and sacred pictures being carried in procession. The regiment marched in with colours flying, and the band played the Russian National Anthem. After occupying Matchin the Russians opened right and left, capturing Toultscha on the east, and Hirsova on the west.

A second crossing of the Danube was effected by the Russians on June 27th. Very early in the morning a corps d'armee, under General Dragimiroff, crossed in boats, protected by iron shields, at Simnitza, and, not­withstanding some sharp firing from the Turkish bat­teries, effected a landing by daybreak, by which time no fewer than 208 boats had made the passage. The Turkish troops then retired from their position at Sis- tova, which was immediately occupied by the Russians, the Grand Duke Nicholas crossed over with reinforce­ments, and the Czar at once issued a proclamation to the Bulgarians, announcing the entrance of his army into their territory, where it had already several times fought for the sake of the Christians, and promising that “ Henceforward the Russian arms should protect every Christian against all violence, and that all crime should be followed by fitting punishment.” The Bulgarians were then told that “ as the Russians advance the Turkish power will be replaced by regular organisations in which the Bulgarians will be summoned to take an active part, and new Bulgarian legions will be formed in order to maintain order and security.”

On the 28th June the Czar himself crossed over to Sistova, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm by the Christians. Having established themselves at Sistova, the Russians at once began to complete the construction of a pontoon bridge, and this, notwith­standing a violent gale, and the interference of a Turkish monitor, was ready in three days, when a large force was enabled to cross, and a general move forward was made. The invaders continued to advance, and as each town was taken by the Russians a municipal administration was at once organised, and Matchin and Sistova were placed under Christian magistrates, elected by the inhabitants from among their own citizens. Meanwhile the batteries on either side of the river at other places were not idle. For a distance of 230 miles along the Danube, from Widdin to Silistria, the bom­bardment was being carried on with more or less activity.

Thus by a skilful and unexpected move the Russians had overcome what was expected to be a great difficulty in the way of their progress southward; and in place of suffering a long and exhausting delay on the northern bank of the Danube, found themselves at once in the heart of Bulgaria, and close upon the second Turkish line of defence—the Balkan range of mountains.

Continuing their advance into the interior, the Rus­sians obtained possession of Tirnova, the capital of the province, a fortified town, which stands on a basaltic hill, 1,000 feet high. The garrison, which numbered 3,000 Nizams and a large number of Redifs, were sur­prised and driven out of the town, leaving their camp and ammunition in the hands of the Russians. As usual, the Christian portion of the population welcomed the invaders with a religious procession, and sang a Te Deum in their honor. Biela also was occupied, being evacuated by the Turks without any show of resistance. The Russians had now about 120.000 men across the river, but advanced with great caution, adopting the German method of invasion by always sending cavalry videttes in front to reconnoitre and scour the country, so as to make it safe for the main body to follow. The invading army from Simnitza was divided into three principal columns, one of which marched to Tirnova, a second to Selvi, and a third towards Plevna. Up to this time the Turks had acted wholly on the defensive, and from Sistova to Tirnova on the one side, and Mat­chin to Kustendjie on the other side of the quadrila­teral, no serious stand against the advance of the Russians was made. The Sultan, alarmed at the Mus­covite successes, telegraphed to Abdul-Kerim to know why he and his 300,000 men had not prevented the passage of the river, to which the Serdar Ekrem replied that he had a plan by which not one of the Russians would recross the river alive. Abdul-Hamid, however, somewhat distrusting the efficacy of such a “ plan,” at once despatched Redif Pasha to Shumla to ascertain how affairs really stood, and the result was that Abdul- Kerim received peremptory orders to make a general advance.

Shortly after, the Russians achieved another impor­tant success in the capture of Nikopolis, on the upper Danube and only a few miles from Plevna, afterwards the scene of such great slaughter.

The Russians had been heavily bombarding this town for more than a week, assisted by the Roumanian batteries on the other side of the river. On Sunday, the 15th of July, the attack was renewed with greater activ­ity, under Lieut.-General Baron Krudener, and the Rus­sians, gaining possession of the heights commanding the town, commenced to pour in a hurricane of shells. Upon this the garrison attempted a retreat, which was pre­vented by the Russian infantry, so that at daybreak on Monday morning the Turkish commanders, Achmed and Hassan Pashas, agreed to surrender, and the town, with its garrison of 6,000 men and 40 guns, together with two monitors, fell into the hands of the Russians. This was a most important success, enabling the Russians to build a permanent bridge, the one at Simnitza being far from perfect, and constantly breaking down, thus causing serious delay to the passage of the troops and supplies.

The first passage of the Balkan range, which consti­tutes the great bulwark of defence for southern Turkey, was effected at Hain Bogaz, a small mule track pass, some 4,000 feet high, between the Travna and Elena passes, and a little to the south-east of Timova. General Gourko, with an advance guard oi Cossacks and dra­goons, on Saturday, the 14th of July, surprised the small Turkish force which was posted there, and gained posses­sion of the pass. Next day General Gourko advanced still further, fought another engagement near Arzaza?e, and sent forward to Yeni Sagra, a station on the Adrian­ople railway, a detachment of Cossacks, who created a terrible panic amongst the inhabitants and officials of the district. Marching from Eski Sagra Generals Gourko and Mursky boldly attacked and captured Kezanlik, a town at the Roumelian end of the Shipka Pass, and subsequently made an attack on the Turkish entrench­ments in the pass itself. The first attempt failed, and the Russians were driven back, but a second attack proved successful, and the Turks abandoning eight splendid positions, all well fortified, the pass was occupied by the Russians, whose success was in a great measure owing to the Bulgarian guides, who led the advance guard over small passes known only to themselves, and consequently in no way defended by the Turks. The news that the Russians had so easily succeeded in cross­ing the much-dreaded Balkans, had a very dispiriting effect upon the Turks, more especially as their troops seemed nowhere to be opposing any really efficient resistance to the Russian advance.

About this time the contending nations began to accuse each other of practising the most horrible cruel­ties towards the sick and wounded soldiers who fell into their hands, and also upon defenceless women and chil­dren. A circular issued by the Porte to its representatives abroad detailed the various villages burnt and the number of inhabitants massacred by the Russians and Bulgarians.

Replying to the Turkish accusations, the Grand Duke Nicholas in his report asked how the Mussulman authorities, who took to flight on the approach of the Russians, testify to such occurrences. He also remarked that “ If isolated acts of vengeance are committed by the Bulga­rians, who had been oppressed for centuries, they cannot be prevented by the Russians,” and said that the foreign military attaches and newspaper correspondents can attest that no act of cruelty has been committed by Russian soldiers. He explained that the four vessels laden with stones which had been sunk at the mouth of the Danube, had been placed there to prevent Turkish monitors from entering the river, and would be removed as soon as hostilities should cease. “In the Shipka Pass,” he says on the 28th July, when the Turks were attacked on the southern side, and found it impossible to continue the defence, they hoisted the white flag. The Russian troops at once ceased firing, and the 13th and 15th battalions of riflemen advanced to take possession of the entrenchments, but were suddenly assailed with a discharge of grapeshot and rifles, which inflicted very severe losses upon them.

“ On the following day when General Kobelofif occupied the position the Turks had abandoned, he found by the side of some of the Turkish wounded a heap of heads of Russian soldiers who had been wounded and taken prisoners in different engagements. The foreign military attaches and the Correspondent of the Times were called upon to certify to this fact.” Besides these instances of treachery and cruelty there had been a massacre of Christians at Kavarna, near Baltchuk, on the Black Sea, the women and children being treated in a manner which quite precludes description. On the application of Mr. Layard, the British gunboat Rapid was sent thither to take off any of the survivors. Another report spoke of the massacre of the Christian inhabitants of Yeni Sagra by the Turks. These mutual accusations were afterwards repeated at intervals, fresh instances of “atrocity” being reported every few days.

A panic at Constantinople was caused by the con­tinued advance of the Russians south of the Balkans without any important check, the inhabitants entertain­ing, perhaps, little more dread of the invader than of the Turkish irregular troops, who might be forced back upon the capital. The situation had now become so serious that several changes were made in the Turkish Ministry, and poor old Abdul-Kerim, whose policy of “masterly inaction ” had been taken advantage of by the Russians, was recalled from the seat of war and threatened with court-martial, and Mehemet Ali was appointed commander-in-chief. The effect of this change was soon manifest, for now the Russians met with energetic resistance from three quarters—from Osman Pasha at Plevna, from Mehemet Ali, who advanced from Osman Bazar, and from Suleiman and Reouf Pashas south of the Balkans.

The tide of fortune now turned decidedly in favour of the Turks, who beat the invaders back from almost every one of the advanced positions which they had attained. General Gourko was driven back into the Balkans, and, although he managed to hold the Shipka Pass for some days, he was at length ordered to with­draw to the other side of the mountains, as his position was isolated and very dangerous. The same bad luck seemed to follow other of the Russian leaders, General Zimmermann being unable to effect a junction with the Czarewitch, who, having set himself the task of besieging Rustchuk, was obliged to abandon the enterprise on account of sickness amongst his troops. On the 21st of July the Russians before Plevna suffered- their first defeat, and General Schilder-Schuldner, who commanded them, was sent home to Russia in disgrace; and on the 30th and 31st Osman Pasha tried conclusions with General Krudener, when the Russians were again defeated.

The second attack on Plevna resulted in a disastrous and crushing defeat of the Russians. Owing to the failure of the previous assault on the 19th and 20th of July it had been decided to attack the town in force. The Russians only numbered some 32,000, while the Turks, who were commanded by Osman Pasha, were able to bring reinforcements from Widdin which brought their number up to 40,000 or 50,000, and they had the additional advantage of a very strong position, Plevna lying in a valley commanded by a series of ridges, upon three of which they had constructed strong entrench­ments and powerful batteries.

The Russian attack began early on the morning of the 31st July, General Krudener opening fire from a ridge on the right, above the river Grinica, and his example was speedily followed by Prince Schackoskoy. These were congregated on a ridge to the left above the village of Radisova, which was speedily taken and occu­pied by the Russians. Until one o’clock a fierce artillery duel raged between the opposing batteries, with the apparent effect of considerably damaging the Turkish positions, the Turkish cannon being compelled to quit the opposite height. Then General Schackoskoy thought the time had arrived for the infantry to go into action, and ordered a general advance, notwithstanding that it was clear that General Krudener had not made any progress, and that between the Russian and Turkish positions lay a valley and a steep slope. The infantry, who had been chafing at their inaction, answered the summons with a glad cheer, and moved forward in one long undulating line down into the valley. They were warmly received by the Turks, but nevertheless pushed on the reserves, rapidly filling up the gaps made by the Turkish' deadly fire. The Turkish positions were neared, and suddenly the officers waved their swords, the soldiers closed up into one concentrated mass, and then a general charge was made upon the intrenchmcnts, which after a bloody struggle, were carried. The main earthworks being sub­sequently abandoned by the Turks, the Russians thus became masters of the first Turkish position. Flushed with success, General Schackoskoy now ordered his men

to charge the second ridge, but although this position was occupied for a few moments by the Russians, the Turkish fire proved too deadly for them to hold it, and about 6 P.M. Turkish reinforcements coming up compelled the Russians to retire, after a most determined conflict. Then ammunition failed the Russians, and though reserve after reserve appeared, it was only to swell the slaughter, the retreat at last became general, and the Turks ad­vancing in swarms, recaptured their first position, and began to shell the ridge from which the Russians origi­nally began the attack. About 9 P.M. the Staff quitted the ridge, and then came a night of horrors. Troops retreating in all directions, wounded men everywhere, limping along the pathway, prostrate on the grass, or hiding in the ravines ; artillery, cavalry and infantry, promiscuously mingled, a flying mass of men, horses and wagons in the full tide of retreat.

By the middle of August all the Russians who had crossed the Balkans had been compelled to return, although they still occupied the Shipka Pass. The trans- Balkan three weeks’ campaign cost the Russians 1,603 killed and wounded, while their entire loss up to July 28th, according to official sources, amounted to 14,459 killed and wounded. 

While the events before recorded were taking place in European Turkey, another division of the Russian forces, under the Grand Duke Michael, was engaged in Asia. The army of the Caucasus, numbering 130,000 troops, with 300 guns, besides irregulars and Cossacks, crossed in four places. First blood was drawn near Alexandropol, en route for Kars, with result, according to Turkish accounts, of the loss of 800 of the enemy, while the Russians claimed to have captured 100 Turkish pris­oners, with loss on their side of only one Cossack and a few wounded. So far, however, as can be gathered from the evidence, the Russians appear to have had by far the best of the contest at the outset. But they advanced too rapidly, and without sufficient caution, and the result was that they were ultimately beaten back with great loss. Early in May a severe engagement was fought near Batoum, which resulted in a complete route of the Russians. The Turks, who claim to have left 4,000 dead Russians on the battle field, fought behind entrenchments on high ground with great bravery, and from the nature of their position lost fewer men than the Russians. The news of the victory caused immense enthusiasm among the entire Turkish army in Asia, and was received with acclamation in Constantinople and at the seat of war on the Danube.

Another notable Turkish success was the capture of Soukhoum Kaleh. After a bombardment by three iron­clads, a large body of troops were landed, and, after a severe struggle, took possession of the fortifications. This news created much enthusiasm in Constantinople, and large supplies of arms and ammunition were sent, together with emissaries, to endeavor to incite an insur­rection among the Circassians. This project, however, failed of success, as the uprising was speedily suppressed by large bodies of Russian troops. The Turkish fleet was dispatched to capture exposed Russian sea-board towns ; but little was accomplished in this direction, only a few minor places being bombarded.

As a set-off to the loss of Soukhoum Kaleh, the Russians obtained possession of the important frontier fortress of Ardahan.

The attack was vigorously commenced on the 15th of May by General Loris Melikoff, who succeeded in carry­ing the heights which commanded the town, and which by some strange negligence do not appear to have been in any way adequately fortified by the Turks. On the 17th the Russian artillery effected a breach in the walls of the town, which was subsequently stormed by a col­umn 17,000 strong, the Turks making good their retreat to Erzeroum, the road to Kars being blocked by the Russians. The Turkish loss must have been large, as the Russians claim to have buried 800 bodies, while 82 field and siege guns, large stores of ammunition and provisions, and the whole camp equipment on the banks of the River Kura were taken. The capture of Ardahan was a very important success for the invading arrtiy, as it not only opened the roads to Erzeroum and Kars, but the troops engaged in besieging the town were thus set free to march forward to the assistance of the force before Kars. The operations against that city, under General Komaroff, were still energetically carried on, but the Turks were well able to hold their own, the fortifica­tions having been greatly strengthened during recent years. The Russian General Tchekelaieff, who was wounded in the attack on Ardahan, subsequently died of his wounds. Leaving a strong force before Kars and Batoum, the Russians now pushed forward towards Erzeroum, gradually forcing back Moukhtar Pasha, who attempted to withstand them in the Soghanli Pass. The Russians afterwards advanced to within two miles of Moukhtar Pasha’s position. On the other hand, the Russians around Bayazid were defeated by Faick Pasha with a detachment of Kurds from Van, whilst Batoum was relieved from the dreaded occupation of the Russians by Dervisch Pasha, who, on the 23d, completely routed the attacking force. The greatest success, however, was obtained by Moukhtar Pasha, who took a noteworthy revenge for his former defeat in the Delibaba Pass. He began a forward movement from Erzeroum on the 21 st, and, after two days’ hard fighting, not only succeeded in dislodging the Russians from their positions, but drove them back in disorder upon Zeidi Khan. On the 25th there was a great battle at Zewin, in which General Melikoff, who wished to prevent Moukhtar Pasha from going to the relief of Kars, lost a very large number of men and suffered a very severe defeat, so that according to Turkish accounts communication was restored with the besieged city, Moukhtar Pasha being encamped at less than a dozen miles distance.

Early in July the Russians commenced to retreat along the whole line in Asia, confessing that they had underrated their opponents’ strength, and had committed an imprudence by trusting to isolated columns without supporting them by reserves. Thus the right wing, under General Oklobjo, retired into Russian territory, the centre, under General Melikoff, also retreated, while the left wing under General Tergukassoff endeavored to relieve the citadel of Bayazid, whose garrison was still closely besieged by the Turks under Faick Pasha. Not­withstanding their numerous defeats, the Russians carried on the bombardment of Kars more vigorously than ever, but they were unable to prevent the advance of Moukhtar Pasha, who, with the main body of the Turkish forces, arrived on the 7th at Djievlikia, about five miles distant from Kars, and opened communication with the garrison, the new Governor, Menemenli Pasha, having been previously enabled to enter the city with a reinforcement of 4,000 men. On the 10th of July. General Tergukassoff succeeded in raising the siege of Bayazid. With a force consisting of eight battalions of infantry, twenty-four guns, fifteen sotnias of Cossacks and four squadrons of cavalry, he attacked a corps of 13,000 men which was besieging the citadel. After eight hours’ cannonade the Russian troops took by storm the heights commanding the town, defeated the enemy, and put them to flight Four cannon were captured, with a large quantity of ammunition and provisions. The gar­rison, with the sick and wounded, were taken away, and the town was completely destroyed.

In the beginning of August the Russians were pre­paring to resume the offensive, and 15,000 fresh soldiers crossed the frontier near Ani, on the left bank of the Arpatchj river. The Russian center numbered sixty eight battalions, with 8,500 cavalry under General Melikoff, while General Tergukassoff was on the front at Kara Doulak. Moukhtar Pasha had retired nearer Kars, and sent his heavy baggage into the fortress.

Numerous skirmishes followed between the contend­ing forces under General Tergukassoff and Ismail Pasha, as also between those under General Melikoff and Moukhtar Pasha, but without important results.

Amongst the peculiarities of the campaign, it may be mentioned that the Russians, either out of military pride or with the view to allure the Turks to risk a pitched battle in the open field, have always scorned to move a pickaxe or a shovel for the protection of their armies. With regard to their security, they are accus­tomed to rely entirely on their trustworthy, sharp-sighted Cossacks, who, with ever watchful care, are on the look out for the enemy, and carry on an incessant patrolling along the whole line of pickets, besides which irregular Caucasian horsemen carefully patrol the ground between the two armies, where skirmishing engagements very often follow an accidental encounter, and sometimes give rise to serious alarm.

Meantime the war continued to rage' in European Turkey, carrying devastation in its wake. The dreadful sufferings of the non-combatant portion of the population of the invaded districts is almost beyond belief. The track of each army is everywhere marked by burnt villages, the inhabitants of which, who were fortunate enough to escape butchery, were seen flying for shelter to Constantinople, Adrianople, Phillipopolis, and other places. Not less than 100,000 fugitives were gathered in the three places named ; most of them old men and women, and young children, emaciated, squalid, and in rags. The smaller towns were likewise crowded with refugees. So great was the suffering, and so ex­hausting the drain of able-bodied men, that it became more and more evident that the ultimate conquest of Turkey was only a question of time.

After the abandonment of the Trans-Balkan cam­paign the Russian forces returned into the mountain fastnesses, of which the Shipka Pass was the most important. At this place they entrenched themselves and vigorously resisted attacks made upon them by greatly superior forces of the Turks. On the 21st August, an important engagement took place here, the Turkish forces pushing up the steeps directly above the village of Shipka. The Russian garrison in the works of the pass then consisted of the Bulgarian Legion and one regiment of the 9th Division, both weakened by previous hard fighting, and probably reckoning little more than 3,000 bayonets, with about forty cannon. No supports were nearer than Tirnova, a distance of forty miles—a grave omission. The garrison fought hard and hindered the Turks from gaining any material advantage, though they forced the outer line of the Russian shelter trenches on the slopes below the position of Mount St. Nicholas, the highest peak of the Shipka crossing. The Russians had laid mines in front of their trenches, which were exploded just as the head of the Turkish assaulting parties were massed above them, and a large number of Moslems were blown into the air in fragments. The loss to the Russians on the first day’s attack was but 200, chiefly of the Bulgarian Legion.

On the second day the fighting was not heavy, the Turks being engaged in making a wide turning move­ment on the right and left flanks of the Russian posi­tion, and these attacks were developed with great fierceness and pertinacity.

On the following day (the 23rd) the Turks assailed the Russian position on the front and flanks, and drove in the defenders from their outlying ground. The radical defects of the position became painfully apparent, its narrowness, its exposure, its liability to be out­flanked and isolated. Fortunately reinforcements had arrived, which averted the mischief which had other­wise imminently impended. Stoletoff hit his hardest, full of energy and force after four long days of intense mental and physical strain, but he could not perform impossibilities with 50,000 men thundering on his front and flank. But there had come to him, swiftly march­ing from Selvi, a brigade of the 9th Division, commanded by another valiant soldier, General Derot­chinski, and this timely succour had been of material value to Stoletoff. The fight lasted all day, and at length, as the sun grew lower, the Turks had so worked round on both the Russian flanks that it seemed as though the claws of the crab were about momentarily to close behind the Russians, and that the Turkish columns climbing the Russian ridge would give a hand to each other on the road in the rear of the Russian position.

The moment was dramatic with an intensity to which the tameness of civilian life can furnish no parallel. The two Russian generals, expecting momen­tarily to be environed, had sent, between the closing claws of the crab, a last telegram to the Czar, telling what they expected, how they tried to prevent it, and how that, please God, driven into their positions and beset, they would hold these till reinforcements should arrive. At all events, they and their men would hold their ground to the last drop of their blood.

It was six o’clock; there was a lull in the fighting, of which the Russians could take no advantage, since the reserves were all engaged. The grimmed, sun-blistered men were beaten out with heat, fatigue, hun­ger, and thirst. There had been no cooking for three days, and there was no water within the Russian lines. The poor fellows lay panting on the bare ridge, reckless that it was swept by the Turkish rifle fire. Others doggedly fought on down among the rocks, forced to give ground, but doing so grimly and sourly. The cliffs and valleys send back the triumphant Turkish shouts of “ Allah il Allah!”

The two Russian generals were on the peak which the first position half encloses. Their glasses anxiously scanned the visible glimpses of the steep brown road leading up thither from the Jantra valley, through thick copses of sombre green, and yet more sombre dark rock. Stoletoff cries aloud in sudden excess of excite­ment, clutches his brother general by the arm,' and points down the pass. The head of a long black column was plainly visible against the reddish-brown bed of the road. “ Now, God be thanked!” says Stoletoff, solemnly. Both generals bare their heads. The troops spring to their feet. They descry the long black serpent coiling up the brown road. Through the green copses a glint of sunshine flashes, banishes the sombreness, and dances on the glittering bayonets. Such a gust of Russian cheers, whirls and eddies among the mountain tops, that the Turkish war cries are wholly drowned in the glad welcome which the Russian soldiers send to the comrades coming to help them.

It is the Rifle Brigade. The same which followed General Gourko in his victorious advance and chequered retreat, and which, after marching thirty-five miles straight on, without cooking or sleeping, now goes at once into action without so much as a breathing halt. Such is the stuff of which thorough good soldiers are made. Their general, the gallant Tzwitinsky, accompanies them, and pushes an attack on the enemy’s position on that wooded ridge on the Russian right. But Radetzky, who himself brought up the tirailleurs, and so at the least reckoning saved the day, marches on up the road with his staff at his back, runs the triple gauntlet of the Turkish rifle fire, and joins the other two generals on the peak hard by the batteries of the first position. As senior and highest officer present, he at once took command, complimenting General Stoletoff, whom he relieved, on the excellence of his dispositions and stubbornness of defence.

The Bulgarian peasant boys displayed singular gallantry, by going down into the actual battle, right into the first line, with stone crocks full of water for the fighting men. This water was fetched from far in the rear, along a bullet-swept road. One lad had his crock smashed by a bullet as he passed, and he wept, not for joy at his fortunate escape, but for sorrow at the loss of the article which enabled him to be of service.

On the morrow at daybreak the attack was renewed by the Turks. The fighting was continuous in the valley, and the reinforcements of the 9th Division sent down greatly helped the Russians. About nine, Dragimiroff arrived with two regiments of the 2nd Brigade of his own division, the Podolsk Regiment. He left in reserve near thedchan the Jitomer Regiment, and marched up the road to the first position. There was no alternative but to traverse that fearfully dangerous road, for the lower broken ground on its left was impracticable, and swarming with Bashi-Bazouks. The Jitomer men lost heavily while making this pro­menade, and having reached the peak, found no safe shelter, for the Turkish rifle fire was coming from two quarters simultaneously. So the infantry were stowed away till wanted in the ditch of the redoubt. Radetzky and his staff remained on the slope of the peak, and here Dragimiroff joined, and was welcomed by his chief.

The fire in the valley waxed and waned fitfully as the morning wore on to near noon. The Turks were very strong evidently in their wooded position, and there was an evident intention on their part to work round their left and edge in across the narrowed throat of the valley towards the rear.

At about eleven the musketry fire thundered along the whole line. The Russians pushed through the woods and vigorously attacked the Turks. The tide of battle shifted to and fro, now on either side an advance and now a retreat. Both sides showed good skirmishing abilities and steady nerves. In the thickest of the fight, General Dragimiroff was wounded in the knee by a bullet and carried to the rear, while General Dragetsky was instantly killed. Radetsky, the chief, taking personal command of a regiment, pushed out, and, after a sharp fight, captured an important ridge,, which the Turks repeatedly, but in vain endeavored to retake.

After eight days of exhaustive fighting the Rus­sians were left undisputed masters of the situa­tion. The Russians acknowledge a loss of 4,200 men,, and the Turks estimate their own loss at about 7,000. In the attack upon Fort St. Nicholas, a battle of nine hours’ duration, the Turks lost 1,500 men, for which they gained nothing but the empty honor of holding that position for two short hours. By this failure the whole projected campaign of Suleiman Pasha north of the Balkans, in aid of Mehemet Ali, was foiled ; while by the Russian success the Grand Duke Nicholas was left free to prosecute his plans at Plevna without fear of any opposing force operating upon his flanks in the direction of Turnova, Selvi or Loftscha; and the confidence and éclat of the Russian army was sensibly increased.

Whilst Suleiman Pasha and General Radetzky were engaging each other in the Balkans, the Turkish forces under Mehemet Ali were opposing the Russian army under the command of the Czarewitch, on the Lorn, a tributary of the Danube, which falls into that river close to Rustchuk. On the 22nd of August the Russians crossed the stream and attacked the enemy on the Yaslar heights ; they failed however to make much impression ; and on the following day the Turks, led by Salih Pasha, marched on Yaslar, took the village, and forced the Russians back to Sultankoi, thus securing a strong hold on the eastern bank of the Lorn, and the command of the road from Osman Bazar to Rustchuk, and turning the right of the Russian positions. A few days later Mehemet Ali attacked part of the Czarewitch’s army under General Leonoff at Karahassankoi, on the western bank of the river, and, after twelve hours’ hard fighting, during which the village changed hands six times, drove the enemy across the river, and forced them to evacuate Haidarkoi and to fall back on Gabovo. The Russian force only numbered 3,500 men, while the Turks mustered 12,000. Next morning the Russians retreated to Popkoi, and as a strong Turkish force had concentrated on the road between Gabovo and Popkoi, the latter village was burnt and evacuated on the istof September, and was subsequently occupied by the Turks. Meanwhile a detachment from Rustchuk had seized Kadikoi, and was subsequently expelled by some Rus­sian reinforcements, but the garrison again made a sortie, and defeated the Russians. By the victory of Karahassankoi the Turks became masters of the coun­try lying between the two branches of the Lorn, the “Ak,” or White Lorn, to the east, and the “Kara,” or Black Lorn, to the west.

Another engagement between portions of the two contending armies of the Danube took place at Kech-lowa, between Turkish columns commanded by Eyoub and Sabit Pashas, and the 12th Russian army corps. The battle in itself was not important, but the crossing of the Danube by the Turkish troops caused a complete hegira of the Bulgarian peasantry, who retreated by every available route, choking up the narrow roads and impeding the march of the armies with innumerable ox­carts, piled up with children, household effects, pigs, fowls, bed and bedding, which they were vainly endeavoring to save from the pillaging Turks.

On the 2d of September the Russians attacked the very important Turkish fortified stronghold of Loftcha, a town of only about 12,000 inhabitants, but a very valuable strategic position. The Russian force engaged consisted of the 2nd Division and a rifle brigade which had returned from Gabrova, marching fifty-five miles, one brigade of the 3rd Division, and Skobeloff’s brigade of Circassian Cossacks. None of the Russian troops, except the last brigade, had been previously engaged, and their strength may be reckoned at about 22,000 men, whilst the Turks numbered only 7,000, but had the advantage of very strong defences.

General Skobeloff on the previous evening marched from Kakrind, his previous defensive position, and car­ried a position on the northeast of Loftcha, which rendered the place virtually untenable. In the night, therefore, the Turks fell back on the fortified range of heights behind the town, and there awaited the attack. This was begun with artillery at sunrise, and the Rus­sians’ advance was so conducted that their artillery, pass­ing south of Loftcha, took up a position enfilading the range of heights held by the Turks, and also cut off their retreat into the Balkans over the Trajan Pass. The last and strongest redoubt of the Loftcha fortifications was garrisoned by Turkish regulars, who fought stubbornly, and were only to be driven out by hand to hand fighting. A ruse was planned by the Russian commander, and a small force was sent against the strong southern face of the fort. Whilst the attention of the Turkish force was thus diverted, the main attack was pushed forward by the Russian troops in open order and strongly supported by reinforcements up the eastern slope of the redoubt. When all was in readiness, with a wild hurrah the Rus­sian troops leaped forward, and despite a perfect shower of shells and bullets, they reached the ditch, leaped into it and clambered up the parapet. A fierce struggle followed ; then the Turks retreated in disorder, but firing as they ran. Vainly they endeavored to join their army at Plevna. The way was blocked by Skobeloff’s artillery ; only the road to the west was open, and this they followed. They dared not yield, for they remembered full well how they had served the wounded Russians at Plevna, and they knew that the remembrance of that day was animating the Russians now. The enemy’s fire was deadly upon the retreating Moslems, and their loss was great. The pursuit was kept up for miles by the Cos­sack cavalry. After the fight the ground was heaped with dead and wounded of both armies, many of them torn with both bullet and bayonet wounds. A hard battle had been fought ; victory perched upon the Rus­sian banners, and Loftcha was theirs. The Turks had lost one of the most important defensive positions north of the Balkans.

A week later the Turks met with another loss of importance in the capture by the Montenegrins of the walled and fortified town of Nicsics, which the former had made such great sacrifices to retain. Five times the brave Montenegrins had besieged this place, and now with all its stores, and armament it fell into their hands, and they were left masters of the situation almost with­out an opposing force.

The Russian armies by the fall of Loftcha were left free to concentrate around the last stronghold of the Turks north of the Balkan range, the famous battle ground of Plevna. On the 6th of September a vigorous cannonading was commenced by the Russian artillery upon the chain of forts and breastworks which constitute this position. A number of the Turkish guns having been silenced, a vigorous infantry assault on the south­ern front was begun on the 11 th of September. As Skobeloff and Meritinsky moved their men up to the attack, the Turks opened a fierce defensive fire along the whole line, from the Loftcha road through Plevna and along the Kadis on a ridge. Close to this ridge the  Russians had planted some thirty guns not above 1,200 yards from the Turkish trenches, which were a continual source of annoyance and danger to the Turks. The latter determined to capture the guns, if possible, and made a fierce assault for that purpose. Three attacks were made by their troops, but each time the assault was repulsed with great loss, the Russians reserving their fire until the enemy came within a hundred yards, and then opening a sudden and deadly fusilade upon the foe. This was more than human power could endure, and the Turks sullenly fell back to their own positions with a loss of over 2,000 men.

Flushed with success the Russian attack now began in earnest. Kruder commanded on the right, Skobelofif to his left, and Kriloff to the left of the latter. The battle raged unceasingly for the space of two hours, the Russian artillery keeping up a continuous fire into the redoubts, and the infantry into the trenches, as the attacking column advanced slowly and cautiously under cover of smoke and fog. A field of corn was also used for a protection. Gradually the Turkish return fire slackened, and the Russians charged with a shout. Close up to the parapet they rush, when suddenly the Turks rise up once more and pour down upon them a fire so deadly that nothing could withstand its destructive fury. The' Russians wait one moment for reinforcements, but none come, and the next moment they are flying back through the field of corn in sad confusion and terribly decimated. The struggle and carnage had been in vain. Kriloff had neglected to afford assistance, and what was left of the attacking party fled back to a friendly shelter. A second attack was more easily repulsed than the first, and then the day’s fighting was over.

On the 12th of September a determined assault was made by the Roumanian brigade upon the Grivica redoubt, one of the strongest positions in the series of Plevna fortifications. Three battalions of Russian troops acted as reserves. The first attack met with a repulse ; the second was successful in taking the works, but the Turks rallying drove out the allied troops. A third attack made at 7 o’clock, p. m., met with better success, and the works were finally captured. This success was of great value to the Russians, the position being a com­manding one. Another redoubt which covered the road to Loftcha was stormed by General Skobeloff and car­ried with a fearful loss of 4,000 men, but only to be retaken after six unsuccessful assaults by the Turkish forces, with a loss of 5,000.

At this juncture, General Todleben, the engineer of Sebastopol, arrived at the seat of war, charged with the superintendence of the Russian fortifications at Plevna. Under his directions a series of parallels and strong earthworks was immediately commenced around the whole front and eastern face of the Turkish works. Constant artillery duels were kept up between the hos­tile forts, and the losses on both sides, from wounds and sickness, were appalling and greatly weakened the offen­sive power of both combatants. O11 the 23rd of October, General Gourko’s forces succeeded in capturing an important redoubt which partially covered the road leading to Sofia, one of the few remaining roads left open to the Turks for transporting reinforcements and supplies. By these successes the Russians were gra­dually completing the coil which should hem in the Turkish forces and prevent both the re-victualling of the beleaguered forts of Plevna and the retreat of the Turkish army, in case that step should be determined upon. By Todleben’s advice, . a regular siege of the Turkish position was determined on, which should suc­ceed either in taking their works by gradual approach or in starving the Turks into an unconditional surrender. Plevna was full of sick and wounded men. The rations were being reduced, and nothing seemed open to the force hemmed in by the Russian coil but a violent sortie to cut through the Russian lines and retreat to the Balkans, unless reinforcements should come to their succor sufficiently numerous and powerful to raise the Russian siege and drive back the invading army. The closing of the Sofia road left only the roads in the direction of Widdin and Venatza still open to the Turks, and these were but poor substitutes for the important highway lost to them by Gourko’s success. The Mus­covite army was now in the rear of Plevna as well as in the front, and the situation constantly became more and more desperate for the Turkish forces. They had besides lost some 30,000 men as prisoners of war in the various Russian successes at Loftcha and Plevna. To add to their discomfiture a Russian cavalry detachment captured Veratza early in November, 1877, and another road thus became sealed to further use by the Turks, and communication with the army of Mehemet Ali at Orchanie became more and more difficult. Osman Pasha, the Turkish commander at Plevna, in vain attempted to recapture the positions taken by the Rus­sians, and suffered severe loss without any favorable result. His losses within the works from the fire of the Russian artillery were great, and his men were worn out and dispirited. Consternation prevailed at Constan­tinople at the position of affairs which was greatly increased by the renewal of the siege of Kars by the Russian forces in Asia, and the crushing defeat of the army of Mukhtar Pasha on the 14th of October in front of that town. This battle was a most important one. The Russian troops pushed forward unexpectedly and drove the Turks out of Orlok and occupied that position, thus completely turning Mukhtar’s right wing. They then directed a heavy cannonade against Olya Tepe, the key of the Turkish position. This the Turks were not able to endure, and General Heyman, with about 15,000 troops, by a sudden and vigorous assault, cap­tured this important position, completely severing the two wings of the Turkish army. Immense slaughter ensued, and the Turkish left wing fled in the greatest confusion, pursued by the Russians towards Kars; the right nearly surrounded by the Russian forces, and driven from one position to another with immense loss, finally surrendered as prisoners of war, at eight o’clock in the evening, with forty guns and all their supplies and equipage. Seven pashas were among the prisoners. Moukhtar himself escaped to the fortifications of Kars. Kars was nearly surrounded by the Russian army, and its fall became merely a ques­tion of time. On the 17th of November General Melikoff directed the attack on its fortifications, with about 15,000 men, who climbed the steep rocks, ramparts and walls, and stormed the forts, desperately fighting the Turks in headlong flight over their ditches and parapets, compelling them to die or surrender. The principal attack was made on the southern forts. General Laze- reff commanded the right wing. The attack began in the centre at 8:30 o’clock in the evening, when Count Crabbe led his brigade against the Khanli redoubt, and fell dead at the first onset. Captain Kwadmicki, of the 39th Regiment, was the first to enter the redoubt, at 11 o’clock at night. His sword was cut clean out of his hand, and his clothes had been pierced. The re­doubt surrendered early in the morning and the three towers almost simultaneously with the capture of the Khanli redoubt. The citadel, Fort Sanvarri, and Fort Hafiz Pasha, were carried by assault by daylight on Sunday morning. Lazereff’s troops had made progress as far as the capture of Fort Karadanigh. The other forts maintained a stubborn resistance until 8 o’clock next morning, when all the garrison that could escape fled towards Erzeroum. The Turks lost 4,000 killed and 7,000 taken prisoners, besides 300 cannon and all the stores. The Russian loss was 2,500 men.

The other stronghold of the Turks in Asia, Erzeroum, was also besieged by a Russian force, and all communication completely severed. Thus every force of any account possessed by the Turks was thrown upon the defensive, hemmed in and besieged by powerful Russian armies, and their power for offensive operations was completely destroyed. The pride of the Turks was humbled, their customary boastful self-confidence and reliance upon a protecting fate was measurably destroyed, and they found themselves almost at the feet of that power which they had but recently so boast­fully and haughtily defied.

 

CHAPTER IV.

FALL OF PLEVNA AND CLOSE OF THE WAR.

We have seen in a previous chapter that when, in the control of the Russian armies, rank of birth gave way to military ability and strategical knowledge, repulse and disaster gave place to success and victory. With  the advent  of  the  venerable  Todleben  on  the  field  of  Plevna, skilful  siege  and unity  of  plan  took  the  place  of  rash adventures  and  purposeless  attack.  For  his  great  success in  repelling  all  the  Russian  attacks,  and  his  successful defence  of  the  last  stronghold  of  Turkish  power,  Osman Pasha  had  been  honoured  with  the  rare  title  of  Ghazi, “the  Victorious.”  But  he  had  carried  his  temerity  too far.  Had  he  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  presented by  the  last  repulse  of  the  Russian  forces,  and  withdrawn his  army  to  Vratza  or  some  other  defensible  position protecting  the  capital,  and  there  taken  up  a  strong position,  with  his  roads  of  communication  still  open,  he would  have  shown  himself  to  be  possessed  of  admirable strategical  qualities  as  well  as  indomitable  pluck. But this  opportunity  once  lost  was  never  again  to  be  offered to  him.

The  Russian  commander  immediately  set  about  to consolidate  his  army  and  to  make  the  outlying  forces  at Rustchuk,  at  Tirnova,  and  in  the  Dobrudscha,  assistant to  the  operations  of  the  main  army  at  Plevna.  The earthworks  surrounding  the  Turkish  position  were strengthened  and  advanced  further  inwards  towards  the enemy’s  lines.  Large  bodies  of  cavalry,  under  General Gourko,  were  pushed  to  the  rear  of  the  Turkish  position, and  cut  off  every  available  road  of  communication.  The fortified  places  for  many miles  on  the  only  possible  lines of  Turkish  retreat,  were  captured.  Gorni-Dubnik  fell after  six  hours  of  sharp  fighting,  3000  Turks  surrendering.    The  forts  were  then  strengthened  and  occupied  by the Russians. Teliche and Dolni-Dubnik, fortified places, next fell before the Russian arms. Chefket Pasha, who was striving to defend the Turkish rear, was attacked and defeated at Radormirzy. The fortified town of Teteven was stormed and captured shortly after. The defeat of Chefket Pasha led to his removed, and to the appointment of Mehemet Ali to the command of the Turkish army aiming at the relief of Plevna. The new commander arrived at Sophia on the 18th of November, 1877, to assume command of demoralized forces, which could hardly be called an army, though numbering some 50,000 men. The work of reorganizing this body and rendering it effective was too great and required too long time to enable Mehmet Ali to afford any material assistance to the beleaguered forces in Plevna. The Russian successes in their attacks upon the fortified places surrounding Plevna continued. The Pravitza Pass was captured, and Pravitza itself occupied with small loss. Etopol, in the Balkan range, also fell before their victorious advance. These Russian victories left the Turkish army in Plevna without a single communication open in their rear, with no possibility of any succour from without, and with no fortified place to afford shelter even if they were able to cut their way through the investing Russian lines.

On the River Lom, a severely fought battle took place on the 26th of November, at Mechka, an attack on that place having been made by the Turks, ceasing at seven o'clock in the evening, with indecisive results, but with heavy losses to both contestants.

On the 2 1st of November, the Roumanian allies of the Russians attacked the Turks at Rahova, on the Danube, and carried that position after a protracted struggle of three days, during which both parties fought with great bravery. This left no fortified stronghold northwest of Plevna still in the hands of the Turks save only the well-known fortress of Widdin. This also the Roumanians contemplated investing, but were stayed by the events at Plevna.

The opening of December found Osman Pasha and his army cooped up in Plevna beyond the possibility of escape or succor; the Turkish Army of the Lom decimated by an unsuccessful attack, and too far away to be of any service to the other forces ; their garrison at Widdin cut off, and Mehmet Ali's troops south of the Balkans in helpless inactivity.

The disposition of the Russian forces was as follows: the army under the more immediate control of Todleben at Plevna, numbered 125,000 men; 8,000 men under the command of the Czarewitch constituted their army of the Lom; a force of 20,000 occupied the Shipka Pass, under General Radetski; while the reserves were located at Tirnova. Sistova and points in the rear.

Meantime, General Gourko, by occupying the bride over the river Vid, had completed the investment of the Turkish positions at Plevna, upon which the attention of the world was now directed. Near this bridge the Turks held one of the most important redoubts of their defensive lines of Plevna fortifications, known as the Krishine redoubt. An important eminence, the Green Hill, partially commanded this position, and a movement was arranged by which this height should be stormed and carried by the combined forces of generals Gourko and Skobeloff. Under cover of a fog they pushed forward, and, notwithstanding the heavy fire of the Turkish forces, they succeeded in capturing and fortifying the coveted elevation. On three successive nights the Turks, with furious attack, sought to regain the position, but in vain. The Russian lines, under cover of the fire of the Green Hill batteries, were pushed to within one hundred yards of the Turkish ramparts. A continuous fire of artillery was kept up by Todleben from some portion of the 400 guns encircling the Turkish position night and day, for the purpose of harassing and exhausting the garrison. One hundred guns at a time belched forth their blinding smoke and deadly missiles. No rest was allowed to the beleaguered forces.

The situation in Plevna was daily becoming more unendurable. Meat was only served out once a week and then in very small rations. Three-quarters of a pondu of bread daily per man kept the Turkish troops from actual starvation, but little more. A Council of War was held, and it was there announced that the store of bread was nearly exhausted, and the ammunition for heavy artillery at a low ebb. Nothing was left to do but make a desperate sortie with a view to escape, or an outright surrender. The former was decided u])on. On the night of the 9th December, 1877. the entire army, save only a few troups left to garrison the redoubts, was pushed forward into the Valley of the Vid. At two o'clock in the morning they commenced crossing the stream by live bridges, one permanent of stone and four extemporized structures. So quiet was the movement that the Russians were not aware of it until the Turkish skirmishers approached to within one hundred yards of their lines. The right of the Turkish attack was defended by six guns ; the crossing on the left by eleven guns on the high ground near the stone bridge under the immediate command of Osman Pasha. The crossing of the army was impeded by the crowd of citizens of Plevna, who insisted on accompanying the army. At daybreak the cannonade commenced. The bridges were completely swept by Russian artillery, and the destruction of life and property was immense. Soon after one of the temporary bridges was destroyed. Still the Turks pushed on to the attack, and carried the first Russian lines. Again they pushed forward, and captured six guns of the Russian second line. At this critical juncture the Turkish shell gave out. The Russians then turned their flank; Osman Pasha was wounded in the leg and his horse killed; and before one-half of the Turks had crossed the stream, the day was lost, and the entire force laid down their arms, and the fall of Plevna was an accomplished fact.

The prisoners of war numbered twelve Pashas, 120 superior officers, 2,000 subordinate officers, and 50,000 men, including the sick and wounded. 80 guns and a large quantity of ammunition were also captured. The fierceness of the struggle to escape is attested by the loss of over 4,000 Turks killed. The Russians found upon their triumph entry into Plevna some 20,000 men Iying disabled from sickness, starvation and wounds.

Great rejoicing took place throughout Russia and Roumania at the news of the fall of this impregnable turkish stronghold, and of the capture of the last effective army which Turkey had in the field. To the Turks the news was not unexpected. They had long anticipated such a result, and the utmost they had dared to hope for was that the army of Mehemet Ali would be able to afford such outside assistance to Osman as to enable him to break through the investing lines and escape to Sophia.

Plevna fell on the 9th December, 1877. On the 12th the Turkish Government issued a circular note to the Treaty Powers asking their mediation for peace. In this note the Porte stated with their accustomed boldness, that while not pleading as a vanquished State, and having still two lines of defence, and animated still by a determination to fight to the bitter end for the integrity and honor of the nation, they were yet willing to treat on the basis of the acceptance of the proposals made by the Conference, and which Turkey had previously so disdainfully and hastily rejected. On this basis a peace, she claimed, might still be made without affecting the dignity of either belligerent.

It is needless to say that these terms were promptly rejected by Russia, and were coldly received by the other powers, who seemed to be much more ready to discuss the partition of Turkey from the standpoint of each one’s selfish interest, than to afford her any assistance in preserving the Ottoman integrity. All negotiations for peace at this juncture fell through.

On the 4th December, Suleiman Pasha made a mighty effort to drive back the forces of the Grand Duke Vladimir at Elena, on the River Lom, and to capture Tirnova. In the attack upon Elena they were successful after a desperate struggle, in which the Russians lost 2,000 men and several guns. For the three following days the fighting continued, but the Russians being reinforced drove back the Turks, and Suleiman was finally forced to burn and evacuate the dearly bought Elena.

On the 1 2th of the same month Suleiman made a victorious attempt against Mechka, a strongly entrenched village. He advanced with strong artillery force and began a furious cannonade. Six times the lurks charged, and six times were driven back by a storm of shot and shell, and finally forced back across the Lom with a loss of over 2,000 men.

At the time of the fall of Plevna, General Gourko was at Orkhanieh, with his force, planning a winter campaign against the Turkish army at Sophia, under command of Mehmet Ali. Almost insurmountable difficulties opposed an advance upon Sophia. The Balkan range lay between; its narrow and rugged passes were filled with snow and ice; artillery could only be carried over by being drawn up by hand; the cavalry could only cross with the greatest difficulty by one route; and every pass was beset by Turkish sharp-shooters. Yet in the face of the obstacles the passage was made. Christmas morning was the time set for the commencement of the forward movement. Steps were cut in the ice, and up the slippery paths the soldiers crept. Each night they lay down to rest in holes scooped in the snow, or by watch-fires on the ice. The coldness was so intense that many of the scouts were frozen to death though relieved every half-hour. At length the summit was reached, and below the Russian army, on the other side, was seen the valley of Sophia and the Turkish entrenchments. The descent was as slow as the ascent, and then two days’ delay was caused by the non-arrival of the detachments which took the more distant passes. The movements on the south side of the Balkans were in sight of the Turkish forces, and great caution was necessary. The passage cost the Russians 1,200 men. But the flanking movement was successful and the Turks at Kurmarli were completely severed from those in Sophia. An immediate attack on the Turkish position was made, and Chaker Pasha, who had superseded Mehmet Ali, resolved upon a hasty retreat, in which movement he lost 21000 men. Meantime Suleiman Pasha, now appointed Commander-in-Chief of all the Turkish forces, arrived at Sophia, but concurred in the necessity for a retreat. The Russian troops entered the town on the 4th of January, 1878.

On the 9th of January, General Radetsky achieved one of the greatest victories of the war in the capture, at the Shipka Pass, of the whole Turkish army at that point, in all, 25,000 men and all their guns, general Gourko captured the Iktiman defile on the 11th of the same month. Consternation now prevailed in the Turkish camps and amongst the populace. Suleiman Pasha determined upon a retreat to Adrianople. The retreat of the army was impeded by the crowds of men, women and children who left their homes and fled before the advancing Russians. This immense horde of citizens, constantly swelling, soon numbered over 100,000 souls. Thousands perished from hunger, cold and exposure. The line of the Turkish retreat was known as "The Road of the Dead."

Suleiman fired the town of Tatar-Hazardik ; but so close upon his heels was Gourko, that he extinguished the flames. The latter succeeded in effecting a junction with Generals Skobeloff and Karassoff, and pressing the Turkish rear, a great battle was fought near Philippopoli lasting from the 15th to 18th January. Suleiman's force was reduced by battle, and by exposure, hunger and cold, to barely 40,000 men; and in this battle he suffered a loss of 10,000 in killed and wounded and over 3,000 prisoners, together with nearly all his guns. Compelled by these reverses to abandon the hope of reaching Adrianople, he struck for the coast at Kalava and awaited shipping to transport his army to Constantinople. Mehmet Ali evacuated Adrianople on the 19th January, burning the stores and magazine; Skobeloff entered it on the 20th. The Mussulmans had all fled to Constantinople and the Russians were welcomed by the Greeks and Bulgarians who remained.

This ended the active operations of the war. The Turkish armies were nearly annihilated. Their two lines of defence were gone, and Constantinople lay at the feet of the conquerors.

Meanwhile, the Montenegrin campaign had resulted equally disastrously for the Turks. Following up the advantage gained by the capture of Nicsics, in which assault they inflicted a loss of upwards of 7,000 men on the Turks, the hardy mountaineers pursued a vigorous campaign and soon became masters of the Duga Pass, of Coransko, Bilek, Pera and the strong redoubt of Crikvica, defeating the divisions of Mehemet Ali and Ali Pasha. In December and January they captured Antivari, Dulcigno, and had besieged Scutari, when the campaign was stopped by the treaty of Adrianople. Servia, also, embittered by the unsuccessful campaign of the previous, year, declared war on the 12th December, 1877, and on the 18th General Leschjanin captured Meamor, and soon after Kursumlje, cutting off communication with Nissa. On the 11th January Nissa itself was taken, with 150 guns as trophies. Shortly after the Servians captured Pristina, the capital of old Servia, and laid siege to Widdin. Thus nearly all of Old Servia was in the hands of the Serbs when the Russian peace negotiations put a stop to the campaign. They captured Vranja February 1st, after the treaty was signed, but before it was known to the Servians, this being the last act of open hostilities. At this point we might note that the losses during the war in killed and disabled had been almost unparalleled in the same duration of time. The Russian losses could not have been less than 150,000 men ; while the Turkish loss exceeded this number. The loss of the latter in prisoners of war was upwards of 130,000 men. If the deaths from massacres and from cold and starvation amongst the populace be added, the total losses of this frightful conflict would without doubt exceed half a million persons sacrificed to the demon of war.

The Turks, thoroughly disheartened at the disastrous result of the last campaign and the loss of Sophia, opened negotiations on the 8th January for an armistice. The Grand Duke Nicholas replied that no armistice could be granted except that the terms of peace should be simultaneously considered. The latter had rapidly pushed his headquarters forward from Bogot to Loftcha, Kesanlik, and thence to Adrianople. At the last named place the commissioners met, the Grand Duke and General Ignatieff acting for the Russians, and Server and Namyk Pashas for the Turks. The terms provided for the Russian advance to the Archipelago and sea of Marmora and to the fortifications of Constantinople. The Danubian fortresses were to be surrendered by Turkey and demolished. Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro were to be independent, with territorial concessions and indemnities to each, Russia was to have Batoum, Ardahan, Kars, Bayazid and adjacent territory and a large war indemnity, and the Russian troops were to remain in occupation until the indemnity was paid. The autonomy of Bulgaria was to be conceded and its boundaries enlarged. Reforms in administration were to be introduced into what was left of Turkey. Russia to superintend the navigation of the Danube.

In any other position of affairs Turkey would have hesitated to accept these terms ; but with the Russian army pressing upon Constantinople no alternative remained but to accept the inevitable. The neutral powers were greatly excited over the terms of peace, notably Austria and England.

In the latter country public opinion was divided, the Liberals generally sympathizing with Russia, and the Conservatives with Turkey. To the vacillating policy of the English government Turkey largely owed her humiliation and defeat. By that government and its hostility to Russia, she was induced to reject all the conference proposals which led to the war ; and afterwards she received none of the expected assistance.

After the fall of Plevna and when Russia had it in her power to exact any desired terms, the relations between Russia and England became most threatening. Had either power really desired war it would have followed with amazing celerity. But both preferred to con [1] fine themselves to threatening epistles, which were showered in wonderful profusion at both capitals. The rapid advance of the Russians led to the passage of the Dardanelles by the British fleet, on the 13th February, and its anchoring off Constantinople as a counter movement. The Russians immediately pushed forward their armies and occupied San Stefano, on the sea of Marmora, and the country immediately under the forts of Constantinople, thus checkmating the British and rendering the occupation of Constantinople a certainty should necessity require it.

Here the negotiations for peace were continued, the plenipotentiaries being Generals Ignatieff and Nelidoff, Safvet Pasha and Sadoolah Bey. The treaty was finally signed on the 3d March, 1878. By the terms of the San Stefano treaty, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania were to be independent with indemnity for war expenses and increase of territory. Bulgaria to be an autonomous tributary province, with its frontier largely extended southward, and a Prince to be elected by the population and confirmed by the powers ; but no member of any ruling family to be eligible ; the Turkish army to evacuate the province and the fortresses to be razed. Russian troops to the number of 50,000 to occupy the province for two years. An agreed sum of tribute to be paid yearly to Turkey. The fortresses of the Danube to be destroyed and vessels of war to be excluded from the river. Reforms to be carried out in what remains of Turkey, full amnesty to be accorded to all belligerents. A war indemnity of 1,410,000,000 roubles to be allowed Russia ; but of this sum 1,100,000,000 roubles to be taken in territory, including the Dobrudscha, Ardahan, Beyazid, Batoum and Kars. The Bosphorus and Dardanelles to be open at all times to neutral vessels of commerce. The Russian army to evacuate Turkish territory in Europe except Bulgaria, within three months, and Asiatic territory within six months ; they to administrate in occupied territory until the evacuation. Prisoners of war to be exchanged.

Such was the San Stefano treaty, which at once excited the bitter ire of Austria and England; the former objecting to the considerable extension of Montenegro and Bulgaria, the latter to the treaty in toto. Again the aspect of affairs became threatening. Proposals for a general conference of the powers were made; but difficulties as to the place of meeting and especially as to the matter to be submitted to that body for a time seemed insurmountable. On the 30th March the British cabinet determined to call out the reserves and to employ Indian troops in European warfare. Carnarvon and Derby had both resigned office in consequence of the warlike measures adopted. Salisbury took the post of foreign secretary, fully committed to hostility to the San Stefano treaty, the objection being that it rendered Turkey entirely subservient to Russian domination and control.

 

CHAPTER  V.

THE    BERLIN    TREATY.

The  meeting  of  a  congress of  European  powers  was strongly  urged  by  Bismarck  and  was  finally  arranged  on the  basis  of  the  consent  of  England  not  to  oppose  the territorial  acquisitions  of  Russia,  in  consideration  of which  Russia  agreed  to  submit  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano to  the  consideration  of  the  Congress.  Berlin  was  finally agreed  upon  as  the  place  of  meeting,  and  the  first session took  place  on  the  13th  June,  Russia,  Turkey,  Germany, France,  England,  Austria,  and  Italy  being  represented by  their  prime  ministers,  their  ministers  at  Berlin  and  a diplomat  specially  appointed.  The  deliberations  extended over  an  entire  month ;  the  final  session  taking place  on  July  13th,  when  the  agreements  constituting the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  were  signed  by  the  representatives. The  more  important  articles  we  give  in  full  and state  the  substance  of  the  rest  as  follows  :

Article I.  Bulgaria  is  constituted  an  autonomous and  tributary  principality,  under  the  suzerainty  of  the Sultan,  with  a  Christian  government  and  a  national militia.

Art.  2,  gives  the  boundary  lines  of  Bulgaria.  The southern  boundary  to  be  the  Balkan  mountains.

Art.  3.  The  Prince  shall  be  elected  by the  population and  confirmed  by  the  Porte  and  the  Powers.  No member  of  a  reigning  European  dynasty  shall  be  prince. In  the  event  of  a  vacancy  a  new  prince  will  be  elected under  the  same  conditions.

Art.  4.  The  plan  of  government  will  be  prepared  by an  assembly  of  nobles,  convoked  at  Tirnova,  before  the election  of  a  prince.  The  rights  of  the  Turks,  Roumanians, Greeks  and  others  will  be  taken  account  of  in whatever  relates  to  the  election  or  government.

Art.  5.  The  following  shall  form  the  basis  of  the public  law  of  Bulgaria.

“Distinction  of  religious  belief  or  confession  shall  not operate  against  any  one  as  a  reason  of  exclusion  or  incapacity in  what  concerns  enjoyment  of  political  rights, admission  to  public  employment,  functions  of  honor,  or the  exercise  of  the  different  professions  and  industries.

“Liberty  of  public  profession  of  all  creeds  shall  be assured  to  all  the  returned  population  of  Bulgaria  as  well as  to  strangers.

“No  trammels  shall  be  imposed  on  the  hierarchic  organization of  different  communions  or  their  relations with  their  spiritual  chiefs."

Art.  6.  Until  a  permanent  organization  is  completed, Bulgaria  shall  be  governed  by  a  provisional  organization, directed  by  Russian  Commissioners,  who  will  be  assisted by  delegates  of  the  great  Powers.

Art.  7.  The  provisory  government  shall  not  be  pro-longed over  nine  months,  by  which  time  the  organic government  shall  be  settled  and  a  prince  elected.

Art.  8.  Treaties  of  commerce,  etc.,  between  the Porte  and  other  Powers,  regarding  Bulgaria,  remain  in force.  The  people  and  commerce  of  all  Powers  are  to  be placed  on  a  footing  of  equality.

Art.  9.  The  tribute  to  the  Porte  shall  be  settled  by the  Signatory  Powers  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  the new  organization.  Bulgaria  shall  bear  a  part  of  the  public debt  of  the  empire.

Art.  10.  The  principality  shall  carry  out  existing railway  conventions  between  Austro-Hungary,  Servia and  the  Porte.

Art.  II.  The  Ottoman  army  shall  evacuate  Bulgaria ;  all  the  fortresses  shall  be  destroyed  within  a  year and  new  ones  shall  not  be  erected.

Art.  12.  Mussulmans  who  remove  from  the  principality can  retain  their  real  property  by  allowing  it  to  be administered  by  third  parties.  A  Turkish-Bulgarian Commission  shall  be  engaged  two  years  with  the  regulation of  all  matters  relative  to  the  transfer  of  State properties and  religious  foundations.

Art.  13.  There  is  formed  south  of  the  Balkans  the Province  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  under  the  direct  political authority  of  the  Sultan,  having  administrative  autonomy and  a  Christian  Governor-General.

Art.  14.  Eastern  Roumelia  is  bounded  on  the  north and  north-west  by  Bulgaria,  and  takes  in  the  territory south  of  the  Balkans  that  is  included  in  the  Principality of  Bulgaria  by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  except  that no  part  of  the  Greek  district  is  included.

Art.  15.  The  Sultan  shall  fortify  the  frontiers,  keep troops  there,  employ  no  irregulars  nor  quarter  troops  on the  inhabitants.  Internal  order  shall  be  preserved  by  a native  gendarmerie  and  local  militia,  in  the  composition of  which  account  shall  be  taken  of  the  religion  of  the  inhabitants where  they  are  stationed,  the  officers  to  be named  by  the  Sultan.

Art.  16.  The  Governor  may  call  on  Turkish  troops if  security  is  menaced.

Art.  17.  The  Governor  shall  be  appointed  for  five years  by  the  Porte,  with  the  assent  of  the  Powers.

Art.  18.  A  European  Commission  shall  determine in  three  years  the  powers  of  the  Governor,  also  the  judicial, financial  and  administrative  requirements  of  the province.

Arts.  19,  20  and  21  provide  that  all  international arrangements  applicable  to  Roumelia  be  continued  in force,  and  insure  religious  liberty.

Art.  22.  The  Russian  army  in  Bulgaria  and  Roumelia shall  not  exceed  50,000  men.  They  shall  begin  to evacuate  the  territory  in  nine  months,  three  months  being allowed  them  to  complete  the  evacuation.

Art.  23.  The  Sublime  Porte  undertakes  scrupulously to  apply  in  the  island  of  Crete  the  Organic Law  of  1868,  while  introducing  into  it  the  modifications which  may  be  considered  equitable.  Similar  laws adapted  to  local  necessities,  excepting  as  regards  the exemption  from  taxation  granted  to  Crete,  shall  also  be introduced  into  the  other  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire for  which  no  special  organization  has  been  provided  for by  the  present  treaty.     Special  commissions,  in  which the  native  element  shall  be  largely  represented,  shall  be charged  by  the  Sublime  Porte  with  the  elaboration  of the  details  of  the  new  laws  in  each  province.  The  schemes of  organization  resulting;  from  these  labors  shall  be  submitted  for  examination  to  the  Sublime  Porte,  which,  before promulgating  the  Act;  for  putting  them  into  force,  shall take  the  advice  of  the  European  Commission  instituted for  Eastern  Roumelia.

Art.  24.  In  the  event  of  the  Sublime  Porte  and Greece  being  unable  to  agree  upon  the  rectification  of frontier  suggested  in  the  thirteenth  protocol  of  the  Congress of  Berlin,  Germany,  Austro- Hungary,  France, Great  Britain,  Italy  and  Russia  reserve  to  themselves  to offer  their  mediation  to  the  two  parties  to  facilitate  the negotiations.

Art.  25.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  shall  be  occupied and  administered  by  Austro-Hungary,  with  the  exception of  the  Sandjak  of  Novi-Bazar.

Art.  26.  The  independence  of  Montenegro  is  recognized.

Art.  27  applies  the  conditions  of  Article  5,  respecting religious  liberty  to  Montenegro.

Art.  28  fixes  the  new  boundary  lines  for  Montenegro.

Art.  29.  Antivari  and  the  sea-coast  belonging  to  it arc  annexed  to  Montenegro  under  the  following  conditions : — " The  districts  situated  to  the  south  of  that  territory, as  far  as  the  Boyana,  including  Dulcinjo,  shall  be restored  to  Turkey.  The  commune  of  Spica,  as  far  as the  southernmost  point  of  the  territory  indicated  in  the detailed  description  of  the  frontiers,  shall  be  incorporated with  Dalmatia.  Montenegro  shall  have  full  and  entire liberty  of  navigation  on  the  Boyana.  No  fortifications shall  be  constructed  on  the  course  of  that  river,  except such as  may  be  necessary  for  the  local  defense  of  the stronghold  of  Scutaria,  and  they  shall  be  confined  within a  limit  of  six  kilometres  of  that  town.  Montenegro  shall have  neither  ships  of  war  nor  flag  of  war.  The  port  of Antivari  and  all  the  waters  of  Montenegro  shall  remain closed  to  the  ships  of  war  of  all  nations.  The  fortifications  situate  on  Montenegrin  territory  between  the  lake and  the  coast  shall  be  razed,  and  none  can  be  rebuilt within  this  zone.  The  administration  of  the  maritime and  sanitary  police,  both  at  Antivari  and  along  the  coast of  Montenegro,  shall  be  in  the  hands  of  Austro-Hungary by  means  of  light  coast-guard  boats.  Montenegro  shall adopt  the  Maritime  code  in  force  in  Dalmatia.  On  her side  Austro-Hungary  undertakes  to  grant  consular protection  to  the  Montenegrin  merchant  flag.  Montenegro shall  come  to  an  understanding  with  Austro-Hungary  on  the  right  to  construct  and  keep  up  across the  new  Montenegrin  territory  a  road  and  a  railway.  Absolute freedom  of  communication  shall  be  guaranteed  on these  roads.

Art.  30  prescribes  for  Montenegro  the  same  provisions as  Article  21,  except  that  the  Turco-Montenegrin Commission  continues  three  years.

Art.  31.  The  Principality  of  Montenegro  shall  come to  a  direct  understanding  with  the  Ottoman  Porte  with regard  to  the  establishment  of  Montenegrin  agents  at Constantinople,  and  at  certain  places  in  the  Ottoman Empire,  where  they  shall  be  decided  to  be  necessary. Montenegrins  travelling  or  residing  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  shall  be  subject  to  the  laws  and  authorities  of  Tur-key, according  to  the  general  principles  of  international law  and  the  established  customs  with  regard  to  Montenegrins.

Art.  32.  The  Montenegrin  troops  shall  be  bound  to evacuate  in  twenty  days  from  the  date  of  the  ratification of  the  present  Treaty,  or  sooner  if  possible,  the  territory that  they  occupy  at  present  beyond  the  new  limits  of  the principality.  The  Ottoman  troops  shall  evacuate  the territory  ceded  to  Montenegro    in   the  same  period.

Art.  33.  As  Montenegro  is  to  bear  her  share  of  the Ottoman  public  debt  for  the  additional  territories  given her  by  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  the  representatives  of  the Powers  at  Constantinople  are  to  determine  the  amount of  the  same  in  concert  with  the  Sublime  Porte  at  a  fair valuation.

Art.  34.  The  independence  of  Servia  is  recognized on  the  conditions  prescribed  in  the  following  article.

Art.  35.  An  application  of  the  conditions  of  Article 5  to  Servia.

Art.  36.  Servia  receives  the  territories  included  in the  subjoined  delimitation  : — The  new  frontier  follows the  existing  line  along  the  thalweg  of  the  Drina  from  its confluence  with  the  Save  upwards,  leaving;  Mali  Zworikn and  Sakhar  to  the  principality,  and  continues  along  the ancient  limits  of  Servia  as  far  as  Kopaonik,  leaving  it  at the  summit  of  Kanilug,  from  that  point  it  follows  at first  the  western  boundary  of  the  Sandjak  to  Nisch  by the  counterfort  to  the  south  of  Kopaonik,  by  the  crests of  the  Marica  and  Mrdar  Planina,  which  form  the  water-shed between  the  basins  of  the  Ibar  and  Sitnica  on  one side,  and  that  of  the  Toplica on  the  other,  leaving  Prepolac  to  Turkey.  It  then  turns  to  the  south  by  the water-shed  between  the  Brvenica  and  the  Medvedja, leaving  the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Medvedja  to  Servia ;  follows  the  crests  of  the  Goljak  Planina  (which  forms the  water-shed  between  Kriva-Kjeka  on  one  side, and  the  Poljanica,  Brvenica  and  Morava  on  the  other), as  far  as  the  summit  of  Poljanica.  It  then  follows  the counterfort  of  the  Karpina  PIanina  as  far  as  the  confluence of  the  Koinska  and  the  Morava,  crosses  this  river, and  ascends  by  the  water-shed  between  the  Koinska brook  and  the  stream  which  falls  into  the  Morava  near Neradovce,  to  gain  the  Sveti  Ilija  Planina  above Trgoviste.  From  thence  it  follows  the  crest  of  the  Sveti  Ilija as  far  as  Mount  Kljuc,  and  passing  by  the  points  marked 1516  and  1547  on  the  map,  and  by  the  Babina  Gora  it reaches  Mount  Crni  Vrh.  Setting  out  from  Mount  Crni Vrh,  the  new  line  of  delimitation  coincides  with  that  of Bulgaria — i.e.,  the  line  of  frontier  follows  the  water-shed between  the  Struma  and  Morava  by  the  summits  of  Strser Wilogolo  and  Mesid  Planina,  passes  Gacini,  Crna  Trova, Darkosvka  and  Drainica  Planina,  and  then  the  Descani Kladance,  along  the  water-shed  between  the  Upper Sukowa  and  the  Morava,  leads  straight  to  the  Stol,  and descends  from  thence  to  intersect  the  road  from  Sophia to  Pirot  at  a  point  one  thousand  metres  to  the  north-west of  the  village  of  Segusa.    It  then  ascends  in  a  straight line  on  to  the  Vidlic  Pianino,  and  ftom  thence  to  Mount Radocina  on  the  chain  of  the  Kodza  Balkan,  leaving  the village  of  Doikinci  to  Servia,  and  that  of  Senakos  to Bulgaria.  From  the  summit  of  Mount  Radocina  the frontier  leads  along  the  crest  of  the  Balkans  to  the  north-west by  Ciprovec  Balkan  and  Stara  Planina  to  the ancient  eastern  frontier  of  the  Principality  of  Servia,  near to  the  Kula  of  Smiljova  cuka,  and  from  thence  follows that  ancient  frontier  to the  Danube,  which  it  reaches  at Rakowitza.

Arts.  37  and  38 shall  be  entered  into and  other  foreign  powers,  those the  same  shall  obtain.

Art.  39  is  substantially  an  application  of  the  provisions of  Article  30  to  Servia.

Art.  40.  Until  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  between Turkey  and  Servia,  Servian  subjects  travelling  or  sojourn-ing in  the  Ottoman  Empire  shall  be  treated  according  to the  general  principles  of  international  !aw.

Art.  41.  The  Servian  troops  shall  be  bound  to  evacuate within  fifteen  days  from  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications of  the  present  Treaty  the  territory  not  comprised within  the  new  limits  of  the  principality.  The  Otto-man troops  shall  evacuate  the  territories  ceded  to  Servia within  the  same  term  of  fifteen  days.  A  supplementary term  of  an  equal  number  of  days  shall,  however,  be granted  to  them  as  well  for  evacuating  the  strongholds and  withdrawing  the  provisions  and  material  as  for  preparing the  inventory  of  the  implements  and  objects  which cannot  be  removed  at  once.

Art.  42.  Servia  having  to  support  a  part  of  the  Ottoman public  debt  in  respect  of  the  new  territories  annexed to  her  by  the  present  Treaty,  the  representatives  at  Constantinople will  fix  the  amount  of  it  in  concert  with  the Sublime  Porte  on  an  equitable  basis.

Art.  43  recognizes  the  independence  of  Roumania on  the  conditions  prescribed  in

Art.  44,  which  applies  the  conditions  of  Article  5  to Roumania.

Art.  45.  The  Principality  of  Roumania  restores  to His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Russia  that  portion  of  the Bessarabian  territory  detached  from  Russia  by  the  Treaty of  Paris  in  1856,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  waterway of  the  Pruth,  and  on  the  south  by  the  waterway  of  the Kilia  branch  and  the  mouths  of  Stary-Stamboul.

Art.  46.  The  islands  forming  the  Delta  of  the Danube,  as  well  as  the  Isle  of  Serpents,  the  Sandjak  of Toultcha,  comprising  the  districts  of  Kilia,  Sulina, Mahmoudie,  Isaktcha,  Toultcha,  Matchin,  Babadagh, Hirsovo,  Kestendje,  Medjidic,  are  added  to  Roumania. The  principality  receives,  in  addition,  the  territory  situated south  of  the  Dobrudja  as  far  as  a  line  starting  eastward from  Silistria  and  terminating  in  the  Black  Sea,  south  of Mangalia.  The  frontier  line  shall  be  determined  on  the spot  by  the  European  Commission  charged  with  the delimitation  of  Bulgaria.

Art.  47.  The  question  relating  to  the  division  of waters  and  fisheries  shall  be  submitted  to  the  arbitration of  the  European  Commission  of  the  Danube.

Art.  48.  No  transit  dues  shall  be  levied  in  Roumania on  goods  passing  through  the  principality"

Articles  52  to  57  regulate  the  navigation  of  the Danube.  The  fortifications  on  the  Danube  from  the Iron  Gate  to  its  mouth  shall  be  razed.  No  ships  of  war shall  navigate  the  Danube  downwards  from  the  Iron Gate.  Guard-ships  of  the  Powers  at  the  mouths  of  the river  may,  however,  ascend  to  Galatz.  The  commission of  the  Danube,  in  which  Roumania  and  Servia  shall  be represented,  is  remaintained.  It  will  exercise  its  powers henceforth  as  far  as  Galatz,  with  complete  indepedence of  temporal  authority,  and  all  arrangements  relative  to  its rights  are  confirmed.  The  work  of  removal  of  the  obstacles which  the  Iron  Gate  and  the  cataracts  cause  to is  entrusted  to  Austro-Hungary,

Articles  58  to  61  relate  to  the  Asiatic  possessions  of Turkey.  Ardahan, Kars, and  Batoum  are  ceded  to  Russia ; Khotoor  to  Persia ;  while  Bayazid  and  the  valley  of  the Alashgerd,  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano, are  returned  to  Turkey.  Russia  engages  to  erect  Batoum into  a  free  port,  essentially  commercial.  The  Porte engages  to  carry  out  the  local  reforms  necessary  in  the provinces  inhabited  by  Armenians,  and  to  guarantee their  security  against  the  Circassians  and  Kurds.

In  Article  62  the  Porte  promises  religious  liberty  and the  security  of  the  Holy  Places.

Article  63  reaffirms  the  Treaties  of  Paris  and  London in  all  those  provisions  which  are  not  abrogated  by  the  present Treaty.

Before  the  Congress  adjourned,  quite  a  surprise  was prepared  for  it  by  the  British  Government.  On  July  9th the  terms  of  a  defensive  alliance  between  England  and the  Porte,  together  with  the  official  correspondence relating  to  it,  were  communicated  to  Parliament.  The convention  had  been  signed  as  early  as  July  4th,  and  the fact  of  its  having  been  witheld  from  the  knowledge  of  the other  Powers  as  well  as  the  sweeping  character  of  its terms  caused  it  to  be  received  with  general  surprise. The  convention,  after  the  usual  introduction,  provides  :

" If  Batoum,  Ardahan,  Kars,  or  any  of  them  shall  be retained  by  Russia,  and  if  any  attempt  shall  be  made  at any  future  time  to  take  possession  of  any  further  territories of  his  Imperial  Majesty  the  Sultan  in  Asia,  as fixed  by  the  definite  treaty  of  peace,  England  engages  to join  his  Imperial  Majesty  the  Sultan  in  defending  them  by force  of  arms.  In  return  his  Imperial  Majesty  the  Sultan promises  to  England  to  introduce  necessary  reforms,  to be  agreed  upon  later  between  the  two  Powers,  into  the Government,  and  for  the  protection  of  Christian  and  other subjects  of  the  Porte  in  these  territories  ;  and  in  order  to enable  England  to  make  necessary  provision  for  executing her  engagement,  the  Sultan  further  engages  to assign  the  island  of  Cyprus  to  be  occupied  and  administered by  England."

In  an  annex  to  this  convention,  signed  on  July  1st,  it was  provided  :

I.  That  a  Mussulman  religious  tribunal  shall  continue to  exist  in  the  island,  which  will  take  exclusive  cognizance of  religious  matters,  and  of  no  others,  concerning  the Mussulman  population  of  the  island.

II.  That  a  Mohammedan  resident  in  the  island  shall be  named  by  the  board  of  pious  foundations  in  Turkey to  superintend,  in  conjunction  with  a  delegate  to  be named  by  the  British  authorities,  the  administration  of the  property,  the  funds  and  lands  belonging  to  mosques, cemetries,  Mussulman  schools,  and  other  religious establishments  existing  in  Cyprus.

III.  That  England  will  pay  to  the  Porte  whatever  is the  present  excess  of  revenue  over  expenditure  in  the island ;  this  excess  to  be  calculated  upon  and  determined by  the  average  of  the  last  five  years — stated  to  be  22,936 purses — to  be  duly  verified  hereafter,  and  to  the  exclusion of  the  produce  of  State  and  Crown  lands  let  or  sold during  that  period.

IV.  That  the  Sublime  Porte  may  freely  sell  and  lease lands  and  other  property  belonging  to  the  Ottoman  Crown and  State  (Arazii  Miriyé  ve  Emlaki  Humayun),  the produce  of  which  does  not  form  part  of  the  revenue  of  the island  referred  to  in  Art.  III.

V.  That  the  English  Government,  through  their  competent authorities,  may  purchase  compulsorily,  at  a  fair price,  land  required  for  public  improvements,  or  for  other public  purposes,  and  land  which  is  not  cultivated.

VI.  That  if  Russia  restores  to  Turkey  Kars  and  the other  conquests  made  by  her  in  Armenia  during  the  last war,  the  island  of  Cyprus  will  be  evacuated  by  England, and  the  convention  of  the  4th  of  June,  1878,  will  be  at  an end.

The  aggregate  of  the  territory  which  Turkey  lost  by the  Treaty  of  Berlin  is  estimated  at  71,500  square  miles. This  includes  the  former  dependencies  of  Roumania  and Servia — to  both  of  which  some  additional  territory  was ceded — and  the  territory  ceded  to  Montenegro  and Russia.  Roumania,  as  constituted  by  the  Treaty  of Berlin,  has  an  area  estimated  at  45,800  square  miles,  with 5,100,000  inhabitants.  Servia  has  gained  still  more,  and her  territory  now  extends  over  19,860  square  miles,  with 1,640,000  inhabitants.  The  small  principality  of  Montenegro  has  been  more  than  doubled  in  extent,  having  increased from  1,560  square  miles  to  3,160  square  miles,  and  its population  now  numbers  220,000.  Russia  has  added  to her  dominions  some  12,000  square  miles,  with  800,000 inhabitants,  in  Asia,  and  the  formerly  Roumanian  part  of Bessarabia  in  Europe.  The  aggregate  population  inhabiting the  ceded  territories  may  be  estimated  at  8,000,000.

But  these  figures  are  far  from  expressing  the  entire loss  of  Turkey.  The  new  principality  of  Bulgaria,  which comprises  an  area  of  23,000  square  miles,  with  a  population of  1,700,000  persons, though  nominally  a  dependency, is  actually  as  independent  as  Servia  and  Roumania  were before  the  war.  The  new  province  of  East  Roumelia  is likewise  nearly  independent;  it  has  an  area  of  13,000 square  miles  and  1,000,000  inhabitants.  Bosnia  and Herzegovina,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  23,000  square miles,  and  a  population  of  1,500,000,  will  pass  under  the administration  of  Austro-Hungary,  and  it  is  quite  commonly expected  that  they  will  never  be  restored  to Turkey.

A  part  of  the  territory  bordering  upon  Greece  must, according  to  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  be  ceded  to  that country.  The  island  of  Cyprus  is  under  the  administration of  England,  which  will  likewise  be  in  no  haste  to return  it.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen,  the  Treaty  of  Berlin seals  the  doom  of  Turkey.  The  final  reconstruction  of the  Balkan  peninsula  will  yet  bring  on  many  grave  com- plications and  may  lead  to  new  fierce  conflicts  ;  but Turkey  henceforth  will  be  too  weak  to  play  a  prominent part  in  them.  The  occupation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina by  Austro-Hungary  threatens  to  bring  on  a new  Eastern  complication.

The  Afghan  trouble  with  England,  and  the  race  and religious  ties  of  the  former  with  the  Turks,  even  now (November,  1878),  threaten  a  renewal  of  complications and  discord,  if  not  actual  conflict.  But  our  duty  ends with  the  close  of  the  Turco-Russian  War  and  the  narrative of  the  events  connected  therewith  down  to  the acceptance  by  the  various  Powers  of  the  results  of  the Berlin  Conference  and  the  occupation  of  Turkish  Provinces as  stipulated  therein.