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JAPAN'S GENERAL HISTORY LIBRARYIVTHE TRIUMPH OF NEW JAPAN
THE year after the conclusion of peace with China,
1896, is memorable for the occurrence of a stupendous natural catastrophe—the
tidal wave, of seismic origin, that swept over the north-eastern coast of the
main island, with the dire results described on an earlier page. This awful
visitation was borne by the people with their usual patient fortitude and
helpfulness: it is in straits like these that the best qualities of the
Japanese are seen.
Besides, this was a period when the hearts of the
Japanese were glad, for the nation had gained, two years ago, a peaceful
victory, as important as any of the triumphs of their arms against the Chinese.
In 1894, Britain had consented to a revision of her treaty with Japan,
abrogating the obnoxious Extra-Territoriality Clause; in other words, placing
her subjects in Japan under Japanese jurisdiction, being thus the first Great
Power to treat Japan on a footing of equality. The Japanese have long memories
for injury, real or imaginary; it is to be hoped that good deeds live as long
in their minds; if so, they will ever remember with gratitude Britain's action
as the first great nation to treat them as equals. The other nations soon followed
suit, more or less willingly, and thus was removed a constant cause of
irritation that had exasperated the Japanese for many years. Every failure of
their diplomacy to secure the revision of the treaties had caused an outburst
of popular indignation; Count Okuma—who succeeded Admiral Yamamoto as Prime
Minister in 1914—was, in 1888, when Minister of Foreign Affairs, dangerously
wounded by a fanatical critic of his policy for securing revision, who threw a
bomb at his carriage, causing such injuries that the Count had to suffer the
amputation of a leg. The revised treaties were not to come into operation for
some time (August, 1899, was the date when they came into force), and it was
provided that the moment foreigners became subject to Japanese law and Japanese
tribunals the whole country would be thrown open to them for travel, residence,
and trade. In 1897, another diplomatic success became apparent, Japan having
obtained from foreign countries consent to a revision, in a sense highly favourable to Japan's Protectionist tendencies, of the very
low Customs Tariff that had been imposed on her, virtually at the point of the
bayonet, by the early treaties.
The same year, 1897, saw the introduction of the gold
standard by Count (now Marquis) Matsukata, then
Minister of Finance. This bold innovation, introduced with great skill, has
completely fulfilled its chief object, by enabling Japan to borrow, at
reasonable rates, in London and other gold-using money markets. The nationalisation of the railways, decided on in 1906 has
probably the same aim, providing the State with a very valuable asset that can
be used as security for loans to be contracted abroad. The successful carrying
out of such an important financial operation as the introduction of the gold standard
is another feather in the cap of a Treasury that succeeded in restoring the
national finances at a time when the paper-money was at an alarming discount
(as much as 60 per cent, in 1881), and that instituted the Government tobacco
monopoly in spite of the great difficulties to be overcome.
The year 1897 is one to be remembered with
gratification by the Japanese people, for it marks a notable epoch in the
gradual extension of their liberties; the Press laws were amended in a liberal
sense, and the right of public meeting (under certain, not very drastic,
restrictions) was by law established. In the following year, 1898, a Revised
Civil Code was promulgated; every revision of the laws tended to improve the
legal status of the Japanese woman, just as every year brought, and still
brings, increased facilities for her education, from the infant school and the
kindergarten up to the University for Women opened in Tokio in 1901. From July to October, 1898, the first Party Cabinet, so far the only
one to which that description properly applies, was in office, under Count
Okuma as Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs. The experiment was not
brilliantly successful, and it made way for a Cabinet of the usual
"opportunist" type more congenial to Japanese conditions, a
"Cabinet of Affairs," with Field-Marshal Marquis (later Prince)
Yamagata at its head. In August, 1899, the revised treaties came smoothly into
operation and Japan was entirely opened to all comers. The new tariff also
became operative in this year. In May, 1900, the Crown Prince married the
Princess Sadako (born in 1884), fourth daughter of
the late Prince Kujo, their happy union being blessed
with three sons. The rights of the people were further enlarged in the same
year by an extension of the Parliamentary Franchise, hitherto very limited.
But the event of 1900 that looms largest in history is
the fanatical outbreak of the so-called Boxers in Northern China, rabid
patriots, lashed into fury by the game of "grab" that was being
carried on by European Powers at the expense of helpless, decrepit China, as
she was before her awakening. The salient feature of the brief, and not very
glorious, campaign of the eight Powers, who despatched troops to suppress the rising, was the part taken in it by the admirably-equipped
Japanese force, under Major-General Fukushima (of "Siberian Ride"
fame). The absolute efficiency of the Japanese contingent, their gallantry in
action, and, above all, their excellent conduct, together with the services
rendered by the handful of Japanese soldiers sailors and civilians who, under
the able leadership of Colonel Shiba (afterwards Military Attaché to the
Japanese Embassy in London), did more for the defence of the besieged Legations in Peking than any other body—these facts, when known
in Europe, had a strong influence in bringing about an event that was to
astound the world. And well it might, for there has never been a compact that
has exercised, in so short a time, such an important influence on the course of
history as the Anglo-Japanese Agreement, concluded in January, 1902. Its aim
was to ensure cooperation between the two Powers in protection of their
identical interest in the preservation of peace in the Far East, and in case of
war in that part of the world between one of them and one other nation, to
limit the conflict to the two combatants
This provision was, of course, directed towards the
probability of Russia being joined by France, her ally, in the event of
hostilities in the Far East. It simply amounted to this: Russia was informed,
by the existence of this Agreement, that if she attacked either Japan or
Britain single-handed, she would be met and opposed singlehanded, but the
appearance of an ally by her side would immediately, and automatically, unite
the forces of Britain and Japan against her and her partner.
The Agreement also recognised the independence of China and—once more—Korea. That Britain, departing from her
traditional policy of "splendid isolation", should enter into such an
agreement, and with an Asiatic "heathen" nation, is conclusive proof
of two facts—the emergency of the moment, and the great change that had come
over popular feeling in the British Empire towards Japan. The emergency was
indeed pressing; the rapid construction of the great Trans-Siberian Railway,
the large fleet Russia was keeping in the Pacific, and constantly reinforcing,
her possession of Port Arthur (against which the half-hearted British
occupation of Wei-hai-wei,
after its evacuation by the Japanese, was but a futile set-off), the Muscovite
preponderance in Korea, but especially Russia's military occupation of
Manchuria, placed at her mercy by Li Hung Chang—all these factors gave colour to Russia's boast that she was now mistress of the
Far East. And the Russians in that part of the world, from Admiral Alexeieff, the "Viceroy of the Far East,"
downwards, behaved as if it belonged to them. As to popular feeling in Britain,
the triumph of Japan over China had produced a deep impression; besides, the
public mind was immeasurably better informed on Japanese matters than eight
years before, and took a warm interest in them. Numerous books had made Japan
widely known; the Japan Society of London had undoubtedly done much, by its
meetings and its publications, to disseminate trustworthy information on all
sorts of Japanese subjects, and the present writer probably helped towards
creating a sympathetic feeling throughout the British Isles by his lectures,
delivered before people of all classes, during ten winters, from Cheltenham to
Cork, from Dundee to Dover. At any rate, the Agreement was hailed with
enthusiasm in Japan, and in Britain too.
The Agreement was designed to keep the peace in the
Far East; it had exactly the opposite effect, and led, indirectly, to a
terrible war. This is to be attributed solely to a miscalculation on the part
of its framers—probably only on the British side, the Japanese were better
informed—as to the effect it would have on Russia. No one in Britain could
believe that the war party in Russia would be so reckless, or the Tsar so weak
as to let himself be carried away by their rash boldness. But "whom the gods
would destroy, they first deprive of reason". It was not otherwise with
Russia, who, throughout the long and tedious negotiations with Japan, in 1903,
on the subject of Korea and of Manchuria, blindly went towards her disastrous
fate by goading the Japanese into cold, silent exasperation by studied
indifference, contemptuous delays, and promises made only to be broken. This
was the attitude in St. Petersburg; in the Far East, Russia continued to play a
huge game of bluff. At last Japan's patience was exhausted. Knowing Russia's
weakness and her own strength, doubled by the agreement with Britain, which
ensured a well-kept ring for the great fight, and made financial support from
the London money-market more than probable, she broke off diplomatic relations
on February 6th, 1904, and, at midnight on February 8th, a division of her
fleet suddenly attacked the unsuspecting Russians at Port Arthur, and torpedoed
two battleships—Retvisan and Tsarevich—and the
cruiser Pallada. The next day the Japanese returned
to the attack and damaged another battleship (Poltava) and three cruisers
(Diana, Askold, Novik). On
the same day, another Japanese squadron, which had covered the landing the day
before at Chemulpo, in Korea, of the vanguard of the
Japanese Army, sank, at that port, the Russian cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreietz. Japan formally declared war
on February 10.
Thus began the Titanic struggle that was to revolutionise the conditions of Asia, to upset the balance
of power in Europe, to cause a new "setting to partners" amongst the
nations, and, most important of all, to give to Russian absolutism, that
survival from the Dark Ages, a blow from which it cannot recover. The limits of
this History will not allow of a detailed description
of this gigantic war, so full of moving incidents,nor even of a connected narrative. A short Diary
of the War must suffice, beginning with its declaration on February 10, down to
the fall of Port Arthur.
DIARY OF THE WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN
1904
FEBRUARY
11 Russian ill-luck begins. Mine-laying ship
Yenisei sunk by a mine (probably one of her own) at Talienwan.
Russia's great naval constructor, Admiral Makaroff, appointed to command the fleet at Port Arthur,
superseding Admiral Stark. General Kuropatkin,
Minister of War, appointed Commander-in-Chief of the troops in Manchuria.
14 Russian cruiser Boyarin torpedoed at Port Arthur by Japanese destroyers.
21 The Viceroy, Admiral Alexeieff,
removes his headquarters from Port Arthur to Mukden.
23 First Japanese attempt to block Port Arthur harbour. Unsuccessful.
25 Russian destroyer Vnushitelni sunk in Pigeon Bay.
MARCH
6 Vladivostock forts
bombarded by Japanese ships. A Russian destroyer sunk by Japanese
torpedo-boats.
17 Russian destroyer Skori blown up by a mine.
27 Second attempt to block Port Arthur. Also
unsuccessful, in spite of heroic bravery of Japan's sailors.
28 Japanese defeat Cossacks at Cheng-ju, in Korea. A small affair, but the first fight on land.
General (now Count) Kuroki commences his advance, with the First Army Corps of
45,000 men, on Wi-ju, at the mouth of the Yalu
(Korea).
APRIL
7 Russians fall back before Kuroki, who occupies
Wi-ju.
13 Russian battleship Petropavlovsk strikes a
Japanese mine (having been lured on to a mine field by Admiral Togo's tactics)
and sinks; Admiral Makaroff, the battle-painter Verestchágin, and all on board drowned except eighty. The
Grand Duke Cyril amongst the survivors.
25 Russian Vladivostock squadron cruises, sinks small Japanese merchant-steamer and the transport Kin-shu Maru, the latter with troops on board, who refuse to
surrender and continue to fire until covered by the waves. The officers commit
hara-kiri.
MAY
1 Kuroki forces the passage of the Yalu River.
Complete rout of the Russians. Japanese artillery splendidly handled. Japanese
infantry storm Kiu-lien-cheng.
Japanese take 29 guns, bury 1,363 Russian dead, and take 613 prisoners.
Japanese loss: 318 killed, 783 wounded.
3 Admiral Togo seals up Port Arthur, as far as
large craft are concerned, by sinking eight merchant steamers (purchased for
the purpose) in the narrow mouth of the harbour.
5 Second Japanese Army Corps, under General (now
Count) Oku, lands at Yen-tao, on east coast of
Liao-tung Peninsula. Landing covered by the fleet under Admiral (now Count)
Togo, whose headquarters, carefully kept secret, are at the Hall Islands, on
the west coast of Korea.
12 Oku's troops occupy various points on the Peninsula
and cut the railway. A Japanese torpedo-boat destroyed by Russian mine.
15 A Japanese despatch-boat
meets with the same fate. On this unlucky day for the Japanese Navy it lost,
further, the splendid cruiser Yoshino, with 235 officers and crew. She was
rammed by her comrade, the cruiser Kasuga, in a dense
fog off Port Arthur. Worse still, the battleships Hatsusé and Yashima struck Russian mines and sank, the former
with 61 officers and 378 crew; from the latter all hands were saved. This happened
ten miles south-east of Port Arthur. The loss of the Hatsusé was kept secret for some time; that of the Yashima until the war was over. The Russians also lost a ship at this time, the cruiser
Bogatyr, which ran ashore in a fog near Vladivostock,
and became a total wreck.
27 Oku captures Kin-chau and carries the strong Russian position at Nan-sharr at the ninth successive assault. He takes 68 guns and 10 machine guns, losing
739 killed and 3,456 wounded.
29 Oku takes Dalny (Tia-ren) to be used as a sea base General Baron
(later Count) Nogi commences the investment of (Port
Arthur, defended by General Stoessel.
JUNE
14&15 Oku having marched northward to meet
General Stackelberg, who was endeavouring to relieve
Port Arthur, defeats him at Telissu. Japanese bury
1,854 Russian dead, and take 16 guns and 300 prisoners. Japanese loss: 217
killed, 946 wounded.
23 Field-marshal Marquis (now Prince) Oyama appointed Commander-in-Chief of the three army corps
(Kuroki's, Oku's, and General Count, now Marquis, Nodzu's),
which were now in touch along a front of from 150 to 180 miles. The late Lieut-General Kodama was appointed Chief of Oyama's Staff.
27 Kuroki captures the Ta-ling and Mo-tien-ling Passes.
JULY
4 After a few days of truce caused by the
torrential rains, the Russians attempt to retake the Mo-tien-ling
Pass and fail.
9 Nodzu has three days
continuous fighting and drives the enemy back. He occupies Kai-ping.
17 Lieut.-General Count Keller, with two Russian
divisions, attempts, but in vain, to retake the Mo-tien-ling
Pass.
25 Oku occupies Ta-shih-chiao, after fighting all
day and far into the night.
27 Japanese occupy Niu-chwang,
and make it an advanced base.
31 Japanese advance all along the line.
AUGUST
28 Major-General Kontkovsky defeated and killed at An-shan-chan. Japanese take
eight field guns after stubborn fighting. Almost at the same time, Kuroki is Aghting hard against Kuropatkin,
who tries to overwhelm him before the other army corps can come to his
assistance, but fails, and loses eight guns at Hung-sha-ling.
AUGUST 30 TO SEPTEMBER 4
The six-days battle of Liau-yang.
Kuroki, Nodzu and Oku defeat Kuropatkin,
who, however, makes a splendid retreat, extricating his army from a very
dangerous position. Opposing forces : Russians about 180,000; Japanese about
200,000. Russian losses about 4,000 killed and 12,000 wounded. Japanese
casualties: about 17,539.
SEPTEMBER
Torrential rains throughout the greater part of the
month made operations impossible.
OCTOBER
10 to 15 The five-days' battle of the Sha-ho. The
Russians, under Kuropatkin, defeated by Oyama. The Japanese bury 13,333 Russian corpses, and
capture 709 prisoners and 45 guns. The total Russian casualties in this great
fight are estimated at about 60,000, the total Japanese casualties at about
15,000.
The exhausted armies entrench themselves, the River Sha-ho dividing them, and remain watching each other for the rest of the year.
THE SIEGE OF PORT ARTHUR
JULY
2 Capture of the Miao-tsin Fort.
6 Taking of No. 16 Fort.
26 Capture of Lang-shan ("Wolf's Hill"), to three miles north of the harbour and commanding it. The Japanese lose over 4,000 killed and wounded in the three
days' fighting, but the Russians are driven back from the outlying works to the
permanent defences.
AUGUST
8 Taku-shan and Shaku-shan, on the eastern front, taken by storm. Batteries
mounted on these important positions, including heavy guns from the ships, with
seamen-gunners to serve them.
16 Summons to surrender sent in to General Stoessel, and promptly and emphatically refused, as is also
an offer of safe-conduct for all non-combatants. A general assault is, soon
after, delivered, but fails on the whole, although the forts east and west of
Pan-lung-shan are captured. This terrible assault
costs the Japanese a heavy casualty list. It is estimated that they lost 14,000
killed and wounded between August 19th and 24th. Direct assault proving
impracticable, the old-fashioned approach by saps, parallels, and mines is
decided on, and the whole besieging force is set to dig between thirty and
forty miles of trenches and tunnels.
SEPTEMBER
29 Several forts are captured, including Fort Kuropatkin. The position of these forts enables the Japanese
to damage some of the Russian warships in harbour by
indirect Are.
OCTOBER
35 Heavy bombardment by the largest siege and naval
guns continues ceaselessly for four days, doing great damage to the Russian
guns.
30 The crests and glacis of Sung-shu-shan, Erh-lung-shan, and the northern fort of East Ki-kwan-shan are taken, with another fort near Ki-kwan-shan, in which three held
guns and two machine guns are taken.
NOVEMBER
3 Bombardment of the dock and eastern harbour, causing a great fire and sinking some ships.
26 General attack on the centre of the permanent forts.
30 Capture of 203-Metre Hill, which commands the harbour and dockyard. Failure of attempt, on same day, to
storm Erh-lung-shan and
Sung-shu-shan forts.
DECEMBER
2 Carnage so great that a six-hours' truce is
arranged for dealing with the dead and wounded on both sides.
DECEMBER
3 Japanese bring up heavy ordnance to 203-Metre
Hill, and bombard the harbour with 11-inch shells,
hitting most of the warships repeatedly, putting them out of action and
partially submerging most of them, between this date and the 9th.
9 The Sevastopol steams out to the mouth of the harbour and is torpedoed by Japanese torpedo-boats.
12 Bold raids by Japanese torpedo-boat to
flotillas. One boat disabled and abandoned.
18 Capture, at night, of the north fort of East
Ki-kwan-shan on the eastern
ridge, with a number of Reid, quick-firing, and machine guns.
22 Japanese hold all the Russian advanced
positions to the west of the fortress.
28 The very strong Erh-lung-shan fort is undermined, the tunnels having to be cut
through the solid rock. The fort is breached by dynamite, and carried by storm,
a large number of guns, including four heavy ones and thirty guns of
37-millimetre calibre, are taken.
1905
JANUARY
1 General Nogi receives
a letter, of the previous day's date, from General Stoessel,
acknowledging the uselessness of further resistance, and proposing a parley.
General Nogi assents, and sends a staff-officer into
the fortress.
2 At four p.m., the terms of surrender are
arranged. The Emperor of Japan telegraphs his appreciation of the gallant defence, and desires that all the honours of war should be paid to General Stoessel and his
troops. At 9.45 p.m. the capitulation is signed, whereby the fortress, with all
arms, ammunition, stores, ships—in short, all Government property—are to be
handed over to the Japanese, some of the forts being immediately evacuated and
transferred as a guarantee
3 The Russian officers, naval, military, and
civil, are allowed to retain their swords, and all those giving their written
parole are permitted to return to Russia, each officer being allowed to take
one soldier-servant with him.
7 The evacuation of the fortress is completed
this day. The total number of prisoners amounts to 878 officers and 23,491 men,
whereof 441 officers, and 229 orderlies accompanying them, give their parole.
This total of prisoners includes more than 6,300 naval officers and seamen.
The Japanese behaved with the greatest kindness and
consideration to the prisoners, both at the surrender and afterwards at the
admirably-managed cantonments erected for them in Japan. A special department
was instituted for the purpose of supplying their relatives at home with news
of their whereabouts and condition, and, for the first time in history, efforts
were made to hand to the families of the Russian dead, through the intermediary
of the French Government, such articles of private property as were found on
their bodies by the Japanese, when time would allow of a search. General Count Nogi, the chivalrous conqueror of Port Arthur, the fortress
that nature and military engineering skill had combined to make so strong that
it was generally regarded as impregnable, lost both his sons, one at Nan-shan and the other killed during the siege. His trusted old
soldier-servant, his favourite horse, and his
faithful dog were also killed before Port Arthur. General Nogi held a review of his victorious troops at Port Arthur, and thus ended the
greatest siege of modern times, one in which the Japanese performed miracles of valour and patriotic devotion.
During the siege the Russian cruiser Novik came out, with ten destroyers, on June 14th, 1904,
and an inconclusive engagement with Japanese torpedo-craft ensued. On the 13th
of the same month the Vladivostock cruiser squadron
made a raid outside the Straits of Korea, looted and sank two small Japanese
sailing ships, and sank the transport Izumi Maru, after the people on board
those ships had escaped in the boats. Shortly afterwards, the same squadron
torpedoed and sank the transports Hitachi Maru and Sado Maru, with all on board, as they refused to surrender.
The Japanese destroyers and torpedo-boats were
unceasingly active during the siege of Port Arthur, harrying such of the
enemy's ships as ventured to the mouth of the harbour or outside. They succeeded in damaging several of them. On August 10th, 1904,
the Russian squadron attempted to escape from Port Arthur, where it was being
subjected to a plunging fire from the Japanese heavy guns on Wolf's Hill.
Admiral Vitoft was in command, and was killed in the
action, lasting from noon till night, which ensued when Admiral Togo
intercepted and dispersed the Russians. Five battleships, one cruiser, and
three destroyers managed to regain the harbour, only
to be sunk in its muddy waters, later on, by the Japanese fire. They were
ultimately raised, with great skill, by the Japanese, and most of them, under
new names, now form part of the Japanese Navy. The ships which did not return
into the harbour mostly escaped to neutral ports,
where they were disarmed and interned until the close of the war.
On August 14th, 1904, an attempt, by the Vladivostock squadron, to sail south, was frustrated by
Admiral Kamimura, who sank the celebrated Russian
cruiser Rurik, from which the Japanese rescued 600 drowning Russians, as they
said, "in return for the cruel loss of Japanese lives when the Novik sank the transport Hitachi Maru". Truly, a noble
revenge! On September 18th, 1904, the Japanese armoured gunboat Hei-yen foundered off Pigeon Bay, through
striking a mine, 300 men going down in her. The cruiser Sai-yen also struck a
mine on November 13th, and sank, with her commander and 39 men, 191 officers
and men being saved by the boats of other ships.
All the other work done by the Japanese Navy, heroic
though it was, pales beside its greatest achievement, the Trafalgar of modern
times, the glorious victory won by the Japanese Nelson, Admiral Count Togo,
over the fleet of Admiral Rozhdestvensky, which had
been seven months on its weary voyage from the Baltic to the Straits of Tsu-shima, there to be practically annihilated, as a fleet,
on May 27th, 1905. Never was the progress of a fleet watched with greater
interest all over the world, and, although it had become known that such a
ridiculous Armada—a medley of good ships and bad, fast ones and slow, manned,
for the most part, by landsmen in sailors' rig—had never yet put to sea, the
crowning victory of the Japanese Navy came as a surprise to many.
With consummate strategy, Togo fixed upon the exact
spot where he would like to meet the enemy in Japanese waters. He pounced upon
them, just there, like a Japanese hawk, and the superior gunnery and seamanship
of the Japanese, the greater speed of their ships, the homogeneous nature of
their squadron, and the terrible, stupefying effects of the high explosives
with which their great shells were charged, made the Russian Admiral's fight a
hopeless one. But even without the advantages just enumerated, the Japanese
would have gained the victory, because they meant to, and they knew how.
In these few words are summed up the two greatest
lessons to be derived from the Russo-Japanese War : that victory is only for
those who are determined to sacrifice their lives, if need be, to gain it,
provided they unite with their indomitable spirit thorough technical knowledge
and the skill which comes only from long and careful, intelligent training. The
voyage of the Baltic Fleet to meet its doom at Tsushima was, wean the
difficulties arising from its composition are taken into consideration, really
a wonderful feat of seamanship; what Admiral Rozhdestvensky must have suffered from continual anxiety during those long months may be
better imagined than described. The hyper-nervous condition of his officers was
well illustrated by the tragedy of the North Sea, when, on the night of October
21st, 1904, his fleet fired at random on the Hull trawlers, peacefully pursuing
their avocation on the Dogger Bank. The steam-trawler Crane was sunk, being
mistaken, so it was alleged, for a Japanese torpedo-boat; other craft were
damaged, two men were killed and several seriously wounded, including some
Russians, for, in their frenzied panic, the Russian gunners kept up a heavy
fire on their own ships, wounding the chaplain of their cruiser Aurora so
severely that he died at Tangier, when the squadron called there.
This outrageous occurrence caused burning indignation
in Great Britain, and the Government found itself compelled to ask Russia for
redress in such a severe tone that the Japanese feared, for a moment, that the
glory of their ultimate triumph might be diminished by a British participation
in the overthrow of Russia. Their fears were groundless; Britain soon moderated
her tone, took part in a solemnly farcical Commission of Inquiry held in Paris,
and accepted an indemnity. On January 11th and 12th, 1905, General Mishchenko's Cossack and other cavalry raided down to old Niu-chwang, destroying a quantity of Japanese stores, but
this effort, about the only instance of dash on the part of the Russian
horsemen—the Cossacks entirely lost their ancient reputation in this
campaign—had no effect whatever on the course of the war, and was far surpassed
in boldness by the raid of a small body of Japanese cavalry, who penetrated a
long way behind the Russian lines.
From January 25th to 29th a battle raged at Hei-kau-tai, where the Russians, under Gripenberg,
attacked the left wing of the Japanese operating in Manchuria, but were
repulsed. On February 23rd hostilities were resumed at the other end of the
line, where the Japanese right was beginning its movement against Mukden, which
led to the occupation of that city by the Japanese, after a battle that ranks
as probably the greatest in history, lasting a week of fighting by day and
night, culminating in the entry of the Japanese into the capital of Manchuria
on March 10th. In the battle of Mukden 750.000 men were engaged (about
330,000 Russians and about 400,000 Japanese). The Russians lost about 28,500
killed, between 90.000 and 100,000 wounded, and 66 out of Kuropatkin's 1,500 guns. The Japanese took about 45,000
prisoners in this stupendous fight, their victory costing them a loss of nearly
50,000 dead and wounded. These figures must be pondered over before their full
significance can be thoroughly grasped.
The further operations in Manchuria were of minor
importance. General Linevitch, who replaced,on March 17th, Kuropatkin as Commander-in-Chief, had no opportunity of retrieving his country's lost
fortunes in the Far East, for Togo's victory had set the seal on Japan's
triumph. Russia understood it. Weary and bleeding from many wounds, robbed,
right and left, by those whose honesty should have been unimpeachable, and with
revolution simmering at home, she was willing to listen to President
Roosevelt's invitation to negotiate, extended to her and to Japan.
On August 9th, 1905, nine days after the surrender of
the Russian forces in the Island of Saghalin, the
Peace Conference opened at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. From that day till
August 26th the plenipotentiaries of the two empires discussed, without any
apparent chance of agreement, and it seemed as if the war would have to
recommence when, on August 26th, Mr. (later Count) de Witte finally declared
that Russia refused to pay any war indemnity whatsoever. To the world's
amazement, on August 29th complete agreement between the late belligerents was
rendered possible by the announcement, by Baron (later Count) Koinura, that Japan waived her demand for an indemnity, and
accepted the southern half of Saghalin, up to the
fiftieth degree of north latitude, in lieu of the whole island she had at first
claimed.
The conditions of the peace were set forth in a long
agreement, of which, in view of its historic interest, we give the chief
provisions:
There shall henceforth be peace and amity between
their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias and between their respective States and subjects.
The Imperial Russian Government, acknowledging that
Japan possesses in Korea paramount political, military, and economical
interests, engages neither to obstruct nor interfere with the measures of
guidance, protection, and control which the Imperial Government of Japan may
find it necessary to take in Korea. It is understood that Russian subjects in
Korea shall be treated exactly in the same manner as the subjects or citizens
of other foreign Powers—that is to say, on the footing of the most favoured nation. The two High Contracting Parties will
abstain on the Russo-Korean frontier from taking any military measures which
may menace the security of Russian or Korean territory.
Japan and Russia mutually engage to evacuate
simultaneously Manchuria, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liau-tung Peninsula; and to restore to the exclusive
administration of China all portions of Manchuria now under the control of the
Japanese or Russian troops with the exception of the territory above mentioned.
Russia declares she has not in Manchuria any territorial advantages or
preferential or exclusive concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or
inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity.
Japan and Russia reciprocally engage not to obstruct
any general measures common to all countries which China may take for the
development of the commerce and industry of Manchuria.
Russia, transfers and assigns to Japan, with the
consent of China, the lease of Port Arthur, Ta-lien, and adjacent territory and
territorial waters and all rights, privileges, and concessions connected with
or forming part of such lease, and she also transfers and assigns to Japan all
public works and properties in the territory affected by the above-mentioned
lease. Japan undertakes that the proprietary rights of Russian subjects in the
territory above referred to shall be perfectly respected.
Russia engages to transfer and assign to Japan,
without compensation and with the consent of the Chinese Government, the
railway between Chang-chun (Kwang-cheng-tsze) and Port Arthur and all its branches, together with
all rights, privileges, and properties appertaining thereto in that region, as
well as all coal-mines in the said region belonging to or worked for the
benefit of the railway. The two High Contracting Parties mutually engage to
obtain the consent of China mentioned in the foregoing stipulation.
Japan and Russia engage to exploit their respective
railways in Manchuria exclusively for commercial and industrial purposes, and
in nowise for strategic purposes. It is understood that this restriction does
not apply to the railway in the territory affected by the lease of the Liau-tung Peninsula.
Japan and Russia, with a view to promote and
facilitate intercourse and traffic, will, as soon as possible, conclude a
separate convention for the regulation of their connecting railway services in
Manchuria.
Russia cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full
sovereignty the southern portion of the Island of Saghalin and all islands adjacent thereto and public works and properties thereon. The
50th degree of north latitude is adopted as the northern boundary of the ceded
territory. Japan and Russia mutually agree not to construct in their respective
possessions on the Island of Saghalin or the adjacent
islands any fortifications or other similar military works. They also
respectively engage not to take any military measures which may impede the free
navigation of the Straits of La Perouse and Tartary.
It is reserved to the Russian subjects, inhabitants of
the territory ceded to Japan, to sell their real property and retire to their
country; but if they prefer to remain in the ceded territory they will be
maintained and protected in the full exercise of their industries and rights of
property on condition of submitting to Japanese laws and jurisdiction. Japan
shall have full liberty to withdraw the right of residence or to deport from
such territory any inhabitants who labour under
political or administrative disability. She engages, however, that the
proprietary rights of such inhabitants shall be fully respected.
Russia engages to arrange with Japan for granting to
Japanese subjects rights of fishery along the coasts of the Russian possessions
in the Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas. It is agreed that the foregoing
engagement shall not affect rights already belonging to Russian or foreign
subjects in those regions.
The treaty of commerce and navigation between Japan
and Russia having been annulled by the war, the Imperial Governments of Japan
and Russia engage to adopt as the basis of their commercial relations, pending
the conclusion of a new treaty of commerce and navigation on the basis of the
treaty which was in force before the present war, the system of reciprocal
treatment on the footing of the most favoured nation.
The Governments of Japan and Russia shall present to each other a statement of the direct expenditures respectively incurred by them for the care and maintenance of prisoners from the date of capture or surrender up to the time of death or delivery. Russia engages to repay Japan the difference between the actual amount so expended by Japan and the actual amount similarly disbursed by Russia. By an additional Article both Powers are allowed to station troops in Manchuria to guard their Railways, their number not to exceed 15 men for each kilometre of track In presence of the leniency of the victors, displayed
in this treaty, the world was at a loss to understand Japan's sudden
moderation. It was generally ascribed, in English-speaking countries, to an
almost superhuman magnanimity; and there was, indeed, something of this noble
spirit in the decision taken, at the eleventh hour, by the Emperor's advisers;
but the chief reason that induced them was, without doubt, the financial
exhaustion of Japan at the time.
The financiers of Europe and America were the real
peace-makers who refused to let either Japan or Russia have money to continue
the war, except on exorbitant terms. And money is still the crucial question in
connection with the future development of that wonderland, Japan.
Resplendent in her new glory, that shines, indeed,
"beyond the seas", she is, whilst wisely increasing her armed
strength, settling down to a commercial and industrial campaign in which she
hopes to win victories as brilliant as were her triumphs in the late war. Recognising that commerce is, after all, a kind of warfare,
in which success depends on qualities and methods analogous to those that
brought her victory, she is preparing for the commercial conquest of the Far
East. The one thing she requires for that purpose is increased capital. The
necessity of obtaining it from abroad is a strong guarantee of her peaceful demeanour. She knows full well that excess of pugnacity on
her part would forfeit the confidence of foreign capitalists and damage her
credit. And now a new and opulent money-market is open to her in Paris, chiefly
as a result of the Franco-Japanese Agreement, guaranteeing the status quo of
the possessions of both in the Far East, signed in 1907.
Whether it come from the inexhaustible stocking of the
frugal French worker or from elsewhere, the question of foreign capital, its
easy introduction, and profitable employment, remains the one on which the
whole future development of Japan hinges. Will the Occident find the capital
wherewith to finance the strenuous competition of Japan in industries, trade, and
navigation? In other words, will it "cut a stick for its own back"?
The answer must be, undoubtedly, affirmative, provided the security be
satisfactory and the profit alluring. Abstract considerations as to probable
consequences to future generations trouble the money-merchants but little.
Japan's rulers have, indeed, a difficult task before
them. Whilst safeguarding her interests, they have to keep within due bounds
the natural pride, not to say arrogance, that shines from the eyes of every
Japanese since the victory over Russia. Every man in the nation holds his head
higher since that triumph placed Japan amongst the Great Powers, her Legations
in the principal capitals being raised to Embassies. It is the duty of Japan's
rulers to curb the burning indignation caused by what the nation considers a
slight to its honour—the refusal, on the part of
Californians, British Columbians, and Australians to treat Japanese on a
footing of perfect equality. The matter is one of grave importance,
complicated, in the case of the British dependencies, by the fact of Japan and
Britain being no longer merely partners in an Agreement, but allies, duly
wedded by the Treaty of Defensive and Offensive Alliance signed in London on
August 12th, 1905, and made public, officially, on September 27th of the same
year. The following is the text of this compact:
The Governments of Great Britain and Japan, being
desirous of replacing the Agreement of 1902, have agreed upon the following
Articles, which have for their object:
The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace
in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India; the preservation of the common
interest of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of
the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce
and industry of ail nations in China; and the maintenance of the territorial
rights of the High Contracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of
India, and the defence of their special interests in
the said regions. The articles follow:
It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeopardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests. If by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive
action, wherever arising, on the part of any other Power or Powers either
Contracting Party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of
this Agreement, the other Contracting Party will at once come to the assistance
of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual
agreement with it.
Japan possessing paramount political, military, and
economic interest in Korea, Great Britain recognises the right of Japan to take such measures of guidance, control, and protection
in Korea as she may deem proper and necessary to safeguard and advance those
interests, provided always that such measures are not contrary to the principle
of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations.
Great Britain having a special interest in all that
concerns the security of the Indian frontier, Japan recognises her right to take such measures in the proximity of that frontier as she may
find necessary for safeguarding her Indian possessions.
The High Contracting Parties agree that neither of
them will, without consulting the other, enter into separate arrangements with
another Power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this
Agreement.
The conditions under which assistance shall be
afforded by either Power to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the
present Agreement, and the means by which such assistance is to be made
available, will be arranged by the Naval and Military authorities of the
Contracting Parties, who will from time to time consult one another fully and
freely upon all questions of mutual interest.
The chief objection to Japanese immigrants alleged by
their bitter opponents is that they belong to a race which will not—nay,
cannot—assimilate with the white population. That is a hard saying, and
requires careful investigation. Has any attempt at assimilation ever been made
in the countries in question, and how has it fared? Until more light is thrown
upon this point, there will always be, in the minds of the unprejudiced, a
shrewd suspicion that it is the excellence of the Japanese immigrant's
work—not, as often thought, its cheapness, for he soon "assimilates"
his demands to the current rate of wages—and his frugality, his docility, that
make him unpopular with that particular class of so-called "workers"
whose aim in life appears to be to work: as little as possible and obtain high
pay in return for very little exertion. To anyone who knows the people of Japan
well, it must appear clearly evident that frequent and intimate contact between
them and the white race can tend only to the ultimate good of both. It is
likely that association with white people would tend, in time, to modify,
perhaps to remove, the evil characteristics that mar the Japanese nature. On
the other hand, there is no doubt that the white race have much to learn from a
nation that is, on the whole, composed of good men and women—a nation gifted
with grand virtues far outweighing those faults that are apt to grate
unpleasantly on Occidental nerves. In one word, a nation that has succeeded in
producing that marvel of history—New Japan.
5. THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF BUDDHISM THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN
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